Fez, Morocco
Fez
فاس | |
---|---|
Royal Palace, and Fes el Bali a.k.a. the Medina of Fez. | |
UTC+1 (CET) | |
Area code | +212 (53) |
Arab States |
Fez or Fes (
Founded under
(lit. 'Old Fes') quarter, a.k.a. Medina of Fez. Under Almoravid rule, the city gained a reputation for religious scholarship and mercantile activity.Fez reached its zenith in the
The city consists of two old
Etymology
The name of the city in Arabic is فاس Fās (or ڢاس in traditional Maghrebi script), from which the English names Fez, Fès, and Fas are derived. According to some traditions, the city's name comes from the Arabic word فأس Faʾs, meaning pickaxe. Various legends have been reported to explain this etymology. One tells the story of a gold pickaxe found on site during the city's construction, while another claims that Idris I used a silver and gold pickaxe to dig alongside his workers.[4]: 26 [5][6] Another account reported by Ibn Abi Zar claims that an ancient city named "Sef" had previously existed on the site and that Idris I reversed the letters of this name to create the name "Fes".[4]: 26–27 [5]
During the rule of the Idrisid dynasty (788 to 974), Fez consisted of two cities: Fās, founded by Idris I,[7] and al-ʿĀliyá, founded by his son, Idris II. During this period the capital city was known as al-ʿĀliyá, with the name Fās being reserved for the separate site on the other side of the river; no Idrisid coins have been found with the name Fez, only al-ʿĀliyá and al-ʿĀliyá Madinat Idris. It is not known whether the name al-ʿĀliyá ever referred to both urban areas. The two cities were united in 1070 and the name Fās was used for the combined site.[8]
History
Foundation and the Idrisids
The city was first founded in 789 as Madinat Fas on the southeast bank of the Jawhar River (now known as the Fez River) by Idris I, founder of the Idrisid dynasty. Idris I was an Hasanid Sharif from Arabia who was forced to flee the Hejaz after a failed revolt against the Abbasid Caliphate, eventually moving to northern Morocco and conquereing much of the area.[9][10] His son, Idris II,[11] built a settlement called al-ʿĀliyá on the opposing river bank in 809 and moved his capital here from Walili (Volubilis).[12]: 35 [13]: 35 [14]: 83 The early population was composed mostly of Berbers, along with hundreds of Arab warriors from Kairouan who made up Idris II's entourage.[12]: 35, 41 [14]: 82
Arab immigration to Fez increased afterwards. Andalusi families of mixed Arab and Iberian descent,[15] who were expelled from Córdoba after a rebellion in 817–818 against al-Hakam I, were one major component of the immigrant population. These families mainly settled in Madinat Fas.[12]: 46–47 These two waves of immigrants gave the city its Arabic character and would subsequently give their name to the districts of 'Adwat Al-Andalus and 'Adwat al-Qarawiyyin .[16]: 51 The city also had a prominent Jewish community, probably consisting of Zenata Berbers who had previously converted to Judaism, as well as a small remaining Christian population for a time. The Jews were especially concentrated in a northeastern district of al-ʿĀliyá, known as Funduq el-Yihoudi (near the present-day Bab Guissa gate).[12]: 42–44
Following the death of Idris II in 828 the region was divided among his sons. The eldest, Muhammad, received Fez, but some of his brothers attempted to break away from his leadership, resulting in an internecine conflict. Although the Idrisid realm was eventually reunified and enjoyed a period of peace under Ali ibn Muhammad and Yahya ibn Muhammad, it fell into decline again in the late 9th century.[17]
In the 10th century, the city was contested by the Umayyad Caliphate of Córdoba and the Fatimid Caliphate of Ifriqiya (Tunisia), who ruled the city through a host of Zenata clients.[14]: 88–91 [17][20]: 63–64, 74–75 The Fatimids took the city in 927 and expelled the Idrisids definitively, after which their Miknasa (one of the Zenata tribes) were installed there. The city, along with much of northern Morocco, continued to change hands between the proxies of Córdoba and the proxies of the Fatimids for many decades. Following another successful invasion by Buluggin ibn Ziri in 979 and a brief period of Fatimid control, the forces of Al-Mansur of Cordoba managed to retake the region again, expelling the Fatimids permanently.[17] From 980 (or from 986[21][12]), Fez was ruled by a Zenata dynasty from the Maghrawa tribe, who were allies of the Caliphate of Córdoba. They maintained this control even after the Caliphate's collapse in the early 11th century and until the arrival of the Almoravids.[13]: 16 [21][14]: 91
Fez continued to grow under Zenata control, even though conflicts between its two settlements, Madinat Fas and al-ʿĀliyá, flared up during periods of political rivalry.
Almoravids, Almohads and Marinids
In 1069–1070 (or possibly a few years later
In 1145 the
In 1250, Fez regained its status as the capital under the
The
The
Saadis and 'Alawis
In the 16th century the
The Saadis, who used Marrakesh again as their capital, did not lavish much attention on Fez, with the exception of the ornate ablutions pavilions added to the Qarawiyyin Mosque's courtyard during their time.[47]: 70 Perhaps as a result of persistent tensions with the city's inhabitants, the Saadis built a number of new forts and bastions around the city which appear to have been aimed at keeping control over the local population.[a]
After the long reign of Ahmad al-Mansur, the Saadi state fell into civil war between his sons and potential successors. Fez became a rival seat of power for a number of brothers vying against other family members ruling from Marrakesh. Both cities changed hands multiple times until the internecine conflict finally ended in 1627. It was only when the founder of the
After Rashid's death, Fez underwent another dark period. Moulay Isma'il, his successor, apparently disliked the city—possibly due to a rebellion there in his early reign—and chose nearby Meknès as his capital instead.[12]: 84 Although he did restore or rebuild some major monuments in the city, such as the Zawiya of Moulay Idris II, he also frequently imposed heavy taxes on the city's inhabitants and sometimes even forcibly transferred parts of its population to repopulate other cities in the country.[12]: 84–85 After his death, Morocco was plunged into anarchy and decades of conflict between his sons who vied to succeed him. Fez suffered particularly from repeated conflicts with the Udayas (or Oudayas), a guich tribe (vassal tribe serving as a garrison and military force) previously installed in the Kasbah Cherarda by Moulay Isma'il. Sultan Moulay Abdallah, who reigned intermittently during this period and used Fez as a capital, was initially welcomed in 1728–29 as an enemy of the Udayas, but relations between him and the city's population quickly soured due to his choice of governor. He immediately built a separate fortified palace in the countryside, Dar Dbibegh, where he resided instead. For nearly three more decades the city remained in more or less perpetual conflict with both the Udayas and the 'Alawi sultans.[12]: 85–86
Starting with the reign of Moulay Muhammad ibn Abdallah, between 1757 and 1790, the country stabilized and Fez finally regained its fortunes. Although its status was partly shared with Marrakesh, it remained the capital of Morocco for the rest of the 'Alawi period up to the 20th century.[12]: 88 [13]: 25–26 The 'Alawis continued to rebuild or restore various monuments and undertook a series of extensions to the Royal Palace.[37][51] The sultans and their entourages also became more and more closely associated with the elites of Fez and other urban centers, with the ulama (religious scholars) of Fez being particularly influential. After Moulay Slimane's death, powerful families from Fez became the main players of the country's political and intellectual scene.[16]: 242–247
The Tijani Sufi order, started by Ahmad al-Tijani (d. 1815), has had its spiritual center in Fez since al-Tijani moved here from Algeria in 1789.[16]: 244 The order spread quickly among the literary elite of North West Africa and its ulama had significant religious, intellectual, and political influence in Fez and beyond.[52] Until the 19th century the city was the only source of fezzes (also known as the tarboosh).[11]
The last major change to Fez's topography before the 20th century was made during the reign of Moulay Hassan I (1873–1894), who finally connected Fes Jdid and Fes el-Bali by building a walled corridor between them.[12]: 89 [28]: 25–26 New gardens and summer palaces, used by the royals and the capital's high society, were built within the corridor, such as the Jnan Sbil Gardens and the Dar Batha palace.[12]: 89–90 [51] Moulay Hassan also expanded the old Royal Palace itself, extending its entrance up to the current location of the Old Mechouar while adding the New Mechouar, along with the Dar al-Makina, to the north. The expansion separated the Moulay Abdallah neighbourhood to the northwest from the rest of Fes Jdid.[51]
Fez played a central role in the
Colonial period
In 1912,
A number of social and physical changes took place during this period and across the 20th century. Starting under Lyautey, one important policy with long-term consequences was the decision to largely forego redevelopment of existing historic walled cities in Morocco and to intentionally preserve them as sites of historic heritage, still known today as "
The creation of the separate French Ville Nouvelle to the west had a wider impact on the entire city's development.[62] While new colonial policies preserved historic monuments, they stalled urban development in heritage areas.[60] Scholar Janet Abu-Lughod has argued that these policies created a kind of urban "apartheid" between the indigenous Moroccan urban areas, who were forced to remain stagnant in terms of urban development and architectural innovation, and the new, mainly European-inhabited planned cities, which expanded to occupy lands formerly used by Moroccans outside the city.[63][64]: 165–166 [60] This separation was partly softened, however, by wealthy Moroccans who started moving into the Ville Nouvelles during this period.[65][13]: 26 By contrast, the old city (medina) of Fez was increasingly settled by poorer rural migrants from the countryside.[13]
Fez also played a role in the Moroccan nationalist movement and in protests against the French colonial regime. Many Moroccan nationalists received their education at the Al-Qarawiyyin University and some of their informal political networks were established thanks to this shared educational background.[66]: 140, 146 In July 1930, the students and other inhabitants protested against the Berber Dahir, decreed by the French authorities in May of that year.[67][66]: 143–144 In 1937, the Al-Qarawiyyin Mosque and R'cif Mosque were rallying points for demonstrations against a violent crackdown on Moroccan protesters in the nearby city of Meknes, which ended with French troops being deployed across Fes el-Bali, including at the mosques themselves.[20]: 387–389 [66]: 168 Towards the end of World War II, Moroccan nationalists gathered in Fez to draft a demand for independence which they submitted to the Allies on January 11, 1944. This resulted in the arrest of nationalist leaders followed by the violent suppression of protests across many cities, including Fez.[68][66]: 255
Post-independence era
After Morocco regained its independence in 1956, many of the trends begun under colonial rule continued and accelerated. Much of Fez's bourgeois classes moved to the growing metropolises of Casablanca and the capital, Rabat.[13]: 26 [69]: 40 The Jewish population was particularly depleted, either moving to Casablanca or emigrating to countries like France, Canada, and Israel. Although the population of the city grew, it did so only slowly up until the late 1960s, when the pace of growth finally accelerated.[68]: 216 Throughout this period Fez nonetheless remained the country's third largest urban center.[13]: 26 [68]: 216 Between 1971 and 2000, the population of the city roughly tripled from 325,000 to 940,000, making it the second largest city in Morocco.[14]: 376 The Ville Nouvelle became the locus of further development, with new peripheral neighbourhoods–with inconsistent housing quality–spreading outwards around it.[68] In 1963 the University of Al-Qarawiyyin was reorganized as a state university,[70] while a new public university, Sidi Mohamed Ben Abdellah University, was founded in 1975 in the Ville Nouvelle.[71] In 1981, the old city, consisting of Fes el-Bali and Fes Jdid, was classified as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.[72]
Social inequalities and economic precarity were accentuated during the repressive reign of King Hassan II and the period known as the Years of Lead (roughly 1975–1990).[53]: 170 Fez was strongly affected by unemployment and lack of housing. Austerity measures led to several riots and uprisings across other cities during the 1980s. On December 14, 1990, a general strike was called and led to protests and rioting by university students and youths in Fez. Buildings were burned and looted, including the Hôtel des Mérinides, a luxury hotel overlooking Fes el-Bali and dating to the time of Lyautey. Thousands were arrested and at least five were killed. The government promised to investigate and raise wages, though some of these measures were dismissed by the opposition.[14]: 377 [73][74][75]
Today Fez remains a regional capital and one of Morocco's most important cities. Many of the former notable families of Fez still make up a large part of the country's political elite.[76] It is also a major tourism destination due to its historical heritage. In recent years efforts have been underway to restore and rehabilitate the old medina, ranging from the restoration of individual monuments to attempts to rehabilitate the Fez River.[77][78][79][80]
Geography
Location
The city is divided between its historic medina (the two walled districts of Fes el-Bali and Fes Jdid) and the now much larger Ville Nouvelle (New City) along with several outlying modern neighbourhoods. The old city is located in a valley along the banks of the Oued Fes (Fez River) just above its confluence with the larger Sebou River to the northeast.[12]: 32 [11] The Fez River takes its sources from the south and west and is split into various small canals which provide the historic city with water. These in turn empty into the Oued Bou Khrareb, the stretch of the river which passes through the middle of Fes el-Bali and separates the Qarawiyyin quarter from the Andalusian quarter.[12]: 232–235
The new city occupies a plateau on the edge of the Saïs plain. The latter stretches out to the west and south and is occupied largely by farmland. Roughly 15 km south of Fes el-Bali is the region's main airport, Fes-Saïs. Further south is the town of Sefrou, while the city of Meknes, the next largest city in the region, is located to the southwest.[81][82]
Climate
Northwest of the
Climate data for Fez (Fès–Saïs Airport), altitude: 579 m (1,900 ft) 1991–2020 | |||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
Record high °C (°F) | 25.0 (77.0) |
30.5 (86.9) |
33.3 (91.9) |
37.8 (100.0) |
41.3 (106.3) |
44.0 (111.2) |
46.7 (116.1) |
45.7 (114.3) |
42.8 (109.0) |
37.5 (99.5) |
32.3 (90.1) |
27.0 (80.6) |
46.7 (116.1) |
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) | 16.0 (60.8) |
17.3 (63.1) |
19.9 (67.8) |
22.0 (71.6) |
26.4 (79.5) |
31.2 (88.2) |
35.1 (95.2) |
35.1 (95.2) |
30.3 (86.5) |
26.1 (79.0) |
20.2 (68.4) |
17.2 (63.0) |
24.7 (76.5) |
Daily mean °C (°F) | 9.9 (49.8) |
10.9 (51.6) |
13.3 (55.9) |
15.2 (59.4) |
19.0 (66.2) |
23.1 (73.6) |
26.5 (79.7) |
26.8 (80.2) |
22.9 (73.2) |
19.4 (66.9) |
14.1 (57.4) |
11.2 (52.2) |
17.7 (63.9) |
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) | 3.7 (38.7) |
4.4 (39.9) |
6.6 (43.9) |
8.3 (46.9) |
11.5 (52.7) |
14.9 (58.8) |
17.9 (64.2) |
18.3 (64.9) |
15.6 (60.1) |
12.6 (54.7) |
8.1 (46.6) |
5.2 (41.4) |
10.6 (51.1) |
Record low °C (°F) | −8.2 (17.2) |
−5.3 (22.5) |
−2.5 (27.5) |
−0.5 (31.1) |
0.0 (32.0) |
4.9 (40.8) |
8.5 (47.3) |
9.2 (48.6) |
5.9 (42.6) |
0.0 (32.0) |
−1.4 (29.5) |
−5.0 (23.0) |
−8.2 (17.2) |
Average precipitation mm (inches) | 60.1 (2.37) |
54.3 (2.14) |
59.2 (2.33) |
54.7 (2.15) |
38.2 (1.50) |
11.1 (0.44) |
1.1 (0.04) |
4.9 (0.19) |
22.1 (0.87) |
53.9 (2.12) |
66.1 (2.60) |
62.0 (2.44) |
487.7 (19.20) |
Average precipitation days | 6.7 | 6.5 | 6.9 | 6.3 | 4.7 | 1.7 | 0.4 | 1.0 | 2.4 | 5.1 | 6.5 | 6.5 | 54.7 |
Mean monthly sunshine hours | 210.6 | 201.1 | 244.0 | 246.5 | 278.0 | 315.0 | 338.0 | 320.4 | 282.5 | 245.5 | 205.2 | 199.8 | 3,086.6 |
Percent possible sunshine | 60 | 55 | 58 | 62 | 64 | 71 | 79 | 77 | 75 | 64 | 60 | 60 | 65 |
Source 1: NOAA (sun 1981–2010)[85][86] | |||||||||||||
Source 2: Voodoo skies for extremes[84] Weather Atlas[87] |
Climate data for Fez | |||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
Mean daily daylight hours | 10.0 | 11.0 | 12.0 | 13.0 | 14.0 | 14.0 | 14.0 | 13.0 | 12.0 | 11.0 | 10.0 | 10.0 | 12.0 |
Average Ultraviolet index | 3 | 4 | 6 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 10 | 8 | 6 | 4 | 3 | 6.8 |
Source: Weather Atlas [87] |
Demographics
According to the 2014 national census, the population of the city of Fez was 1,112,072, which includes the municipalities of Fez proper and Méchouar Fès Jdid (New Fès).[2] Most of the population was Moroccan, but it also included 3,515 resident foreigners, making up 4.2 percent of the foreigner population of Morocco.[2][88] The predominant religion in Fez is Islam.[89] In the past the city had a large Jewish population, but as of 2001, less than 200 Jewish people remain.[90]
Language
The main spoken language in Fez is Arabic
The Fessi dialect has traditionally had distinctive linguistic features. On the
Many of these features were shared with the other "pre-Hilalian" dialects in the region.[93]: 5, 24 [b] However, due to social and demographic changes that started in the 20th century such as mass rural migration into the city and the departure of most of the city's old urban elites to Casablanca, these old linguistic features are no longer dominant in the speech of Arabic speakers in Fez today.[94][93]: 5, 24 Prior to the departure of most Jewish residents in the second half of the 20th century, the Jewish community in Fez also spoke an Arabic dialect similar to the rest of city.[93]: 24 [c]
Modern Standard Arabic and Berber (Tamazight) are Morocco's two official state languages, although French is also widespread as a language of government and law.[95][96] The primary language of the literary traditions of Fes is Arabic.[97] While the daily spoken language is Darija (the Moroccan Arabic dialect), many people also speak French fluently. English is increasingly being learned by younger generations. Berber dialects are commonly spoken in the countryside around the city.[98]
Economy
Historically, the city was one of Morocco's main centers of trade and craftsmanship. The tanning industry, for example, still embodied by tanneries of Fes el-Bali today, was a major source of exports and economic sustenance since the city's early history.[99] Up until the late 19th century, the city was the only place in the world which fabricated the fez hat.[11] The city's commerce was concentrated along its major streets, like Tala'a Kebira, and around the central bazaar known as the Kissariat al-Kifah from which many other souqs (markets) branched off.[12]: 112, 122–129 [13]: 52–56 The crafts industry continues to this day and is still focused in the old city, though largely reliant on tourism.[11]
Today, the city's surrounding countryside, the fertile Saïss plains, is an important source of agricultural activity producing primarily cereals, beans, olives, and grapes, as well as raising livestock.[11][100] Tourism is also a major industry due to the city's UNESCO-listed historic medina.[11] Religious tourism is also present due to the old city's many major zawiyas (Islamic shrines), such as the Zawiya of Moulay Idris II and the Zawiya of Sidi Ahmed al-Tijani, which attract both Moroccan and international (especially West African) pilgrims.[101] The city and the region still struggle with unemployment and economic precarity.[102]
Government
Two municipalities (Arabic: جماعتين حضريتين, French: communes) in the Fez Prefecture (Arabic: عمالة فاس) make up the city of Fez. Most of Fez is administered as the municipality of Fez, while the neighborhood of Fes Jdid is administered separately as the municipality of Méchouar Fès Jdid. Outside of the city, there are also three rural municipalities in the prefecture, Aïn Bida, Oulad Tayeb, and Sidi Harazem.[103]
The municipality of Fez has an area of 94 square kilometres (36 sq mi) and recorded a population of 1,091,512 in the 2014 Moroccan census.[104] It is divided into six arrondissements (مقاطعات):
Arrondissement | Area[105] | Population (2014)[104] |
Population (2004)[105] |
Change | Population density (2014) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Agdal | 21.0 km2 (8.1 sq mi) | 142,407 | 144,064 | −1.2% | 6,781/km2 (17,560/sq mi) |
El Mariniyine | 13.5 km2 (5.2 sq mi) | 209,494 | 191,093 | +9.6% | 15,520/km2 (40,190/sq mi) |
Fès-Médina | 2.2 km2 (0.85 sq mi) | 70,592 | 91,473 | −22.8% | 32,100/km2 (83,100/sq mi) |
Jnan El Ouard | 16.3 km2 (6.3 sq mi) | 201,011 | 174,226 | +15.4% | 12,330/km2 (31,940/sq mi) |
Saiss | 20.5 km2 (7.9 sq mi) | 207,345 | 156,590 | +32.4% | 10,114/km2 (26,200/sq mi) |
Zouagha | 20.5 km2 (7.9 sq mi) | 260,663 | 163,291 | +59.6% | 12,413/km2 (32,150/sq mi) |
The municipality of Fez is governed by a 91-member council, elected by direct universal suffrage every six years.[106][107] The arrondissements of Zouagha and Marininyine elect 17 councillors each; Jnane El Ward and Saiss elect 16 councillors each; Agdal elects 13, and Fès-Médina elects 12.[108] Executive power is wielded by a president and ten vice-presidents, which are elected by the council.[109] In 2021, Abdeslam Bekkali, a member of the National Rally of Independents (RNI), succeeded Driss Azami El Idrissi as the new president of the municipality of Fez.[110]
The municipality of Méchouar Fès Jdid consists of the neighborhood of Fes Jdid in the old city and forms an enclave within the municipality of Fez. Established in 1992, it is only 1.6 square kilometres (0.62 sq mi) in extent,
The subdivisions of Fez Prefecture are grouped into two electoral districts, North Fez and South Fez, each of which elects four members to the House of Representatives. North Fez consists of the arrondissements of El Mariniyine, Fès-Médina, and Zouagha and the municipality of Méchouar Fès Jdid. South Fez consists of the other three arrondissements of Agdal, Jnan El Ouard, and Saiss, and the three rural municipalities outside the city of Fez.[113][114]
Landmarks
Medina of Fez
The historic city of Fez consists of Fes el-Bali, the original city on both shores of the Oued Fes (River of Fez), and the smaller Fez Jdid, founded on higher ground to the west in the 13th century. It is distinct from Fez's now much larger Ville Nouvelle (new city). Fes el-Bali is the oldest continuously inhabited walled city in the Arab world,[115] and one of the largest and oldest urban pedestrian zones (car-free areas) in the whole world.[116][117][118] It is the site of the famous Qarawiyyin University and the Zawiya of Moulay Idris II, the most important religious and cultural sites, while Fez el-Jdid is the site of the 195 acre Royal Palace,[119] still used by the King of Morocco today. These two historic cities are linked together and are usually referred to together as the "medina" of Fez, though this term is sometimes applied more restrictively to Fes el-Bali only.[d]
Fez is becoming an increasingly popular tourist destination and many non-Moroccans are now restoring traditional houses (
Places of worship
There are numerous historic mosques in the medina, some of which are part of a madrasa or zawiya. Among the oldest still standing today are the Mosque of al-Qarawiyyin, founded in 857 and subsequently expanded,[47][122] the Mosque of the Andalusians founded in 859–860,[123][124]: 7 the Bou Jeloud Mosque from the late 12th century,[125] and possibly the Mosque of the Kasbah en-Nouar (which may have existed in the Almohad period but was likely rebuilt much later[4][12]). The very oldest mosques of the city, dating back to its first years, were the Mosque of the Sharifs (or Shurafa Mosque) and the Mosque of the Sheikhs (or al-Anouar Mosque); however, they no longer exist in their original form. The Mosque of the Sharifs was the burial site of Idris II and evolved into the Zawiya of Moulay Idris II that exists today, while the al-Anouar Mosque has left only minor remnants.[12]: 33
A number of mosques from the important Marinid era, when Fes Jdid was created to be the capital of Morocco, include the
Elsewhere, the Jewish quarter (Mellah) is the site of the 17th-century
Madrasas
The al-Qarawiyyin was established in 857 by
Tombs and mausoleums
Located in the heart of Fes el-Bali, the Zawiya of Moulay Idris II is a zawiya (a shrine and religious complex; also spelled zaouia), dedicated to and containing the tomb of Idris II (or Moulay Idris II when including his sharifian title) who is considered the main founder of the city of Fez.[11][144]: 51 Another well-known and important zawiya is the Zawiyia of Sidi Ahmed al-Tijani, which commemorates Sidi Ahmed al-Tijani, the founder of Tijaniyyah tariqa from the 18th century.[145] A number of zawiyas are scattered elsewhere across the city, many containing the tombs of important Sufi saints or scholars, such as the Zawiya of Sidi Abdelkader al-Fassi, the Zawiya of Sidi Ahmed esh-Shawi, and the Zawiya of Sidi Taoudi Ben Souda.[146]: 579 [147]: 62, 149
The old city contains several major historic cemeteries which stand outside the walls of Fes el-Bali, namely the cemeteries of Bab Ftouh (the most significant), Bab Mahrouk, and Bab Guissa. Some include marabouts or domed structures, containing the tombs of local Muslim saints (often considered Sufis), for example the Marabout of Sidi Harazem in the Bab Ftouh Cemetery.[12]: 114, 468, 604 The ruins of the Marinid Tombs, built during the 14th century as a necropolis for the Marinid sultans, are close to the Bab Guissa Cemetery.[13]: 8
Fortifications
The entire medina of Fez was heavily fortified with crenelated walls with watchtowers and gates, a pattern of urban planning which can be seen in Salé and Chellah as well.[141] The oldest sections of the walls today, on the north side of Fes el-Bali, date back to the Almohad period.[13]: 36 The gates of Fez, scattered along the circuit of walls, were guarded by the military detachments and shut at night.[141] Some of the main gates have existed, in different forms, since the earliest years of the city.[12]: 40–58 The oldest gates today, and historically the most important ones of Fes el-Bali, are Bab Mahrouk (in the west), Bab Guissa (in the northeast), and Bab Ftouh (in the southeast).[12]: 56, 109, 123, 126, 138, 142 [13]: 36–41 The main gates of Fes Jdid include Bab Dekkakin, Bab Semmarine, and Bab al-Amer.[51] In modern times, the function of gates became more ceremonial rather than defensive, as reflected by the 1913 construction of the decorative Bab Bou Jeloud gate at the western entrance of Fes el-Bali by the French colonial administration.[13]: 42
Several forts were constructed along the defensive perimeters of the medina during different time periods. A "kasbah" in the context of
Tanneries
Since the city's foundation, the tanning industry has been continually operating in Fez and is considered one of the main tourist attractions. There are three tanneries in the city, largest among them is Chouara Tannery near the Saffarin Madrasa along the river. The tanneries are packed with the round stone wells filled with dye or white liquids for softening the hides. The leather goods produced in the tanneries are exported around the world.[150][151][152] The two other major tanneries are the Sidi Moussa Tannery to the west of the Zawiya of Moulay Idris II and the Ain Azliten Tannery in the neighbourhood of the same name on the northern edge of Fes el-Bali.[12]: 220
Historic palaces and residences
Many old private residences have also survived to this day, in various states of conservation. The typical traditional house (dar) is centered around an internal courtyard. Some of these houses also had internal gardens known as a riad.[153]: 55–75 [12]: 495–496 Such private houses include the Dar al-Alami,[154] the Dar Saada (now a restaurant), Dar 'Adiyil, Dar Belghazi, and others. Larger and richer mansions, such as the Dar Mnebhi, Dar Moqri, and Jamai Palace, have also been preserved.[13]: 103–156 Numerous traditional houses, popularly known as "riads", are now utilized as hotels for the tourism industry.[155] The Jamai Palace was converted into a luxury hotel, known as Palais Jamaï, in the early 20th century.[156][13]: 116 The lavish former mansion of the Glaoui clan, known as the Dar Glaoui, is partly open to visitors but still privately owned.[157]
As a former capital, the city contains several royal palaces as well. Dar Batha is a former palace completed by the 'Alawi Sultan Abdelaziz. In 1915 it was turned into a museum of historical art and artifacts, containing around 6,000 pieces.[158] A large area of Fes Jdid is also taken up by the 80-hectare Royal Palace, or Dar al-Makhzen. Its ornate gates built in 1969–71 are the main feature visible to the public. Its grounds are not open to the public, as they are still used by the King of Morocco when visiting the city.[159]: 148 [81]
Gardens
The Jnane Sbile Garden, between Fes Jdid and Fes el-Bali, is the oldest surviving garden in Fez and was created as a royal park and garden in the 19th century by Sultan Moulay Hassan I.[13]: 296 [12]: 100 [160] Many bourgeois and aristocratic mansions also had private gardens, especially in the southwestern part of Fes el-Bali.[12]: 124, 482 Other gardens also exist within the grounds of the historic royal palaces of the city, such as the Agdal and Lalla Mina Gardens in the Royal Palace or the gardens of the Dar el-Beida (originally attached to Dar Batha).[12]: 90, 97 [13]: 154, 294–296 [159]: 150
Funduqs (historic merchant buildings)
The old city of Fez includes more than a hundred funduqs or foundouks (traditional inns, or urban
Hammams (bathhouses)
Fez has preserved many of its historic
Ville Nouvelle
The Ville Nouvelle is centered around Avenue Hassan II, a wide street laid out by the French colonial administration after 1912 and known then as Avenue de France.[170]: 139 A tree-lined park area runs along its middle between the lanes for car traffic. At the avenue's northeastern end is Place de la Résistance (originally called Place Gambetta), a large roundabout with a fountain at its center.[171][172]: 82 Further south along the same avenue is Place Florence (originally Place Lyautey), a wide plaza planted with trees and originally designed as a public garden.[173][174][172]: 82 At the southwest end of the avenue is Place Ahmed El Mansour (originally Place Galliéni).[172]: 82
During the colonial period the main public buildings of the city were erected along and around this main avenue.[170]: 139 Buildings from this period were constructed in a mix of mauresque (neo-Moorish or Moroccan), Art Deco, and Neoclassical styles.[170]: 172–192 On the south side of Place Florence is the Bank al-Maghrib building, built between 1928 and 1931 by architect René Canu.[170]: 181 Nearby, on the east side of Avenue Hassan II, is the Central Post Office building. The first post office here was built in 1925 and 1927 by architect Edmond Pauty, but it was rebuilt and expanded in its current form by architect Emile Toulon in 1946–1947.[170]: 433 The Court of Appeals building, located southwest of the post office, was constructed in 1934–1936 by architects Adrien Laforgue and Antoine Marchisio and it originally housed the Court of First Instance (Tribunal de première instance).[170]: 181
Culture
Fez is considered the spiritual and cultural heart of Morocco.[72][175][4]: 17–18 It is often called the "Mecca of the West" and the "Athens of Africa."[176][177][178]
Literature
Up until the 19th century, the al-Qarawiyyin dominated the intellectual life of the city and of the country around it. Literature was focused on religious scholarship, philosophy, and poetry.[12]: 475–476 The city's largest library was located at the Qarawiyyin Mosque, while others were attached to other major mosques. Under Sultan Abd al-Rahman (r. 1822–1859) a new library was created inside the Royal Palace and later in the 19th century the city's wealthy elites began creating their own privates libraries.[12]: 472–473
The city is also one of the historical centers of Moroccan Sufism and a significant body of written works were devoted to its many Sufi
Towards the beginning of the 20th century Moroccan literature began to diversify, with polemic or political works becoming more common at this time. For example, there were
Fez, along with
Printing in Arabic was introduced to Morocco in 1864–65, on the initiative of a man named Muhammad at-Tayyib ar-Rudani , an Islamic scholar and judge originally from the Sous region. In 1864 Ar-Rudani, while returning from his Hajj pilgrimage, bought an Arabic printing press in Cairo and contracted an Egyptian operator, bringing both back with him to Morocco. The press appears to have been confiscated by the Moroccan authorities when it arrived at port and sent to Meknes, where Sultan Muhammad IV was residing at the time. The first book in Arabic was thus printed in Meknes in June 1865, before the press was moved again to Fez in that same year, where it continued to operate until the 1940s.[97]: 110–115 The press was installed in a central neighbourhood of Fes el-Bali and was managed by the government, which printed traditional scholarly books and made some of the productions available to the Qarawiyyin University free of charge. After 1871 the government transferred management of the press to private citizens and the applications of printing widened.[97]: 119–128, 140 After 1897 it became a regulated industry overseen by officials in Fez.[97]: 134–139 By 1908 there were at least four printing establishments in Fez, while two other Moroccan printers were in Tangier.[97]: 139 Hebrew printing presses were reintroduced to Morocco in the 1890s in Tangier and were more firmly established across the country in the 1920s.[188][187]
Arts
Fez remains the most important production center in Morocco for the art of zellij (traditional mosaic tilework) .[192][193] Zellij workshops in other cities, such as Meknes, Salé and Marrakesh, usually follow or emulate the craftsmanship style of Fez.[193]
The modernist artist Jilali Gharbaoui studied at the Académie des Arts in Fes.[194]
Music
Fes is associated with the
Cultural venues and institutions
The city's main museums are housed in historic monuments mentioned above, including the Nejjarine Museum, the Dar Batha Museum, and the Arms Museum in Borj Nord.[81][198] The Al Houria Cultural Complex, opened in 2005, is a cultural center in the Ville Nouvelle that includes a theatre, a media library, and exhibition spaces.[199][200][201] Several language institutes in Fez also organize cultural activities in addition to offering courses. The French Institute and the Cervantes Institute have branches in Fez which promote French and Spanish, respectively.[202][203] The American Language Center and the Arabic Language Institute in Fez, sister organizations that share the same location in the Ville Nouvelle, offer courses in English and Arabic, respectively.[204][205][206]
Festivals
Fez hosts the annual
Multiple moussems (Sufi religious festivals) have traditionally taken place every year in honour of local Muslim saints and are typically sponsored by one or more of the city's guilds. The most important moussem in the city, and one of the most important in Morocco, is the Moussem of Moulay Idris II. This festival has taken place for hundreds of years[e] and is sponsored by all the guilds in the city, who march through the city together in a procession that culminates at the mausoleum of Idris II. Each guild donates gifts to the zawiya, one of which is a keswa, a large textile decorated with Qur'anic verses that is draped over Idris II's catafalque. The week of the moussem is also marked by other cultural events and entertainment.[216][4]: 86, 130 [217][218][12]: 301–302
The Fez Running Festival is race that has taken place annually since 2022 with two competitions, one for kids and one for adults. It is organized by Abderrahime Bouramdane, a professional marathon runner who was born and raised in Fez. The festival sees thousands of participants every year who run a course that goes throughout the city.[219][220]
Sport
Fez has two
Fez is one of the cities expected to host matches during the 2030 FIFA World Cup and there are plans to upgrade its sports stadium before this date.[224] It is also expected to host matches during the 2025 Africa Cup of Nations.[225]
The
Infrastructure
Parks
The availability of green spaces in Fez is limited and significantly deviates from the international standard, which calls for a minimum of ten square meters of green space per resident. As of 2022, the city provides only two square meters of green space per resident.[228][229]
Latin American Park is a park opened in the summer of 2015 that sits in the middle of Fez. It is around 3,700 square metres in area and employs about 40 workers. The park is dedicated to the relations of Fez and Latin America; its inauguration ceremony was attended by a delegation of ambassadors from Venezuela, Paraguay, and Panama. Latin American Park includes a number of facilities, such as a pool, a children's pavilion, cafes, and several trails.[230]
The Bird Park or Tropicana Park is another green area in Fez. Over seven acres in size, it features playgrounds, community event spaces, restaurants, and rest areas. The park was opened in June 2014 and is credited with significantly improving the recreational infrastructure of Fez. Inside the park is a "Bird Garden" which hosts more than thirty species of birds, local and imported, such as peacocks, parrots, and the North African ostrich. There are also ponds with geese and ducks.[231]
Transport
The city is served by the region's main international airport, Fès–Saïs, located roughly 15 km south of the city center.[81] A new terminal was added to the airport in 2017 which expanded the airport's capacity to 2.5 million visitors a year.[232]
The city's main train station, operated by ONCF, is located a short distance from the downtown area of the Ville Nouvelle and is connected to the rail lines running east to Oujda and west to Tangier and Casablanca.[233][81] The main intercity bus terminal (or gare routière) is located just north of Bab Mahrouk, on the outskirts of the old medina, although CTM also operates a terminal off Boulevard Mohammed V in the Ville Nouvelle. Intercity taxis (also known as grands taxis) depart from and arrive at several spots including the Bab Mahrouk bus station (for western destinations like Meknes and Rabat), Bab Ftouh (for eastern destinations like Sidi Harazem and Taza), and another lot in the Ville Nouvelle (for southern destinations like Sefrou).[81][234]
The city operates a public transit system with various bus routes.[235]
Utilities
The city's water supply, sewage, and electricity networks are managed by the Régie de distribution d'eau et d'électricité de Fès (lit. transl. Water and Electricity Distribution Authority of Fez). An activated sludge treatment plant has been treating Fez's wastewater since 2014.[236]
Education
Primary and secondary education in Fez is administered by Morocco's Ministry of National Education. It includes a preschool level, six years of primary school, followed by three years of middle school and three years of secondary school. Primary education, beginning at age six, is both free and obligatory. Vocational eduaction is also offered.[237]
Fez's
Sidi Mohamed Ben Abdellah University is a public university founded in 1975 and is the largest in the city by attendance, counting over 86,000 students in 2020.[71][240][241] It has 12 faculties with sites across Fez; the two main campuses are known as Dhar El Mehraz and Sais.[240] Euro-Med University of Fez , another public university, was created in 2012 and is certified by the Union for the Mediterranean.[242][243]
The École polytechnique de Technologie was started in 2006 and quickly established itself as one of the leading institutions in the private higher education sector in the city of Fez. In 2013, it became the Private University of Fez , the city's first private university.[244] Its main focus is its engineering school,[245] though it also offers diplomas in architecture, business, and law.[246]
International relations
- Bobo-Dioulasso, Burkina Faso (1982)
- Chengdu, China (2015)[248]
- Coimbra, Portugal[249]
- Córdoba, Spain (1990)[250]
- East Jerusalem, Palestine (1982)
- Florence, Italy (1961)
- Jericho, Palestine (2014)[251]
- Kairouan, Tunisia (1965)
- Kraków, Poland (1985)
- Montpellier, France (2003)
- Saint-Louis, Senegal (1979)
- Suwon, South Korea (2003)
- Wuxi, China (2011)[252]
- Xi'an, China (2019)[253]
Notable people
- Abd al-Hafid of Morocco – Sultan of Morocco from 1909 to 1912, born in Fez[254]
- Abdelilah Bagui – Former international goalkeeper who was born in Fez[255]
- Abdellatif Laabi – Poet born in 1942 in Fez[256]
- Abderrahime Bouramdane – Professional marathoner from Fez[219]
- Abdessalam Benjelloun – Former international footballer born in Fez[257]
- Adel Taarabt – Moroccan association football player from Fez[258]
- Adnane Remmal – Professor at Sidi Mohamed Ben Abdellah University in Fez[259]
- Ahmad Zarruq – Prominent Islamic scholar[260]
- Akram Roumani – Former international footballer born in Fez[261]
- Maliki common law[262]
- Anas Zniti – Professional footballer born in Fez[263]
- Dunash ben Labrat – Commentator and poet born in Fez[264]
- Hamid Chabat – Moroccan politician and former mayor of Fez[265]
- Isaac Uziel – Physician, poet, and grammarian, born in Fez[266]
- Jilali Gharbaoui – Modernist artist, studied at the Académie des Arts in Fes[194]
- Karim Bennani – Moroccan painter born in Fez[267]
- Mehdi Bennani – Moroccan professional racing driver, born in Fez[268]
- Mohamed Chafik – Leading figure in the Amazigh (also known as Berber) cultural movement, born in Fez[269]
- Princess Lalla Salma of Morocco – Princess consort of Morocco, born in Fez[270]
- Rachid Yazami – Scientist, engineer and inventor born in Fez[271]
- Roberto López Ufarte – Professional footballer from Fez[272]
- Samuel Pallache – Merchant, diplomat, and pirate, born in Fez[273]
- Soufiane El Bakkali – Steeplechase runner, born in Fez[274]
- Youssef En-Nesyri – International footballer born in Fez[275]
- Yves Lacoste – French geographer and geopolitician, born in Fez[276]
Notes
- ^ They were located on higher ground overlooking Fes el-Bali, from which they would have been easily able to bombard the city with canons. These include the Kasbah Tamdert, just inside the city walls near Bab Ftouh, the fortressess of Borj Nord to the north and Borj Sud to the south, and the bastions of Borj Sheikh Ahmed, Borj Twil, and Borj Sidi Bou Nafa' to the west. These fortifications were mostly built by Sultan Ahmad al-Mansur in the late 16th century. Their design is influenced by European (probably Portuguese) military architecture in the gunpowder age.[12]: 79–80 [28]: 37 [48]: 92
- Banu Ma'qil tribes that began in the 12th century. After this event, "Hilalian" dialects became dominant in the rural regions of central Morocco and are a major component of wider Moroccan Arabic today.[93]: 2–10
- Judeo-Spanish when they arrived and eventually adopted existing Arabic dialects in the cities.[93]: 10–12
- ^ Medina is the Arabic word for "city", which in former French colonies in North Africa is also used to refer to the old part of a city, as the French largely generally built new cities (Ville Nouvelles) next to them and left the historic cities intact.[120]
- ^ The veneration of Idris II as a patron saint began in the 15th century and so the moussem developed some time after this.[12]: 301–302, 599
References
Citations
- ^ "Fez, Morocco" Archived 2020-08-07 at the Wayback Machine Weatherbase.
- ^ High Commission for Planning. 20 March 2015. p. 8. Archivedfrom the original on 7 November 2017. Retrieved 9 October 2017.
- ^ "Medina of Fez – UNESCO World Heritage Centre". Whc.unesco.org. Archived from the original on 2017-09-19. Retrieved 2017-09-20.
- ^ ISBN 2-7233-0159-1. Retrieved 2021-11-17.
- ^ ISBN 978-2-343-09022-1. Retrieved 2021-11-17.
- ISBN 978-1-57607-919-5.
- ISBN 978-3-319-32485-2.
- ^ O'Meara, Simon M. (2004). An architectural investigation of Marinid Wattasid Fes Medina (674–961/1276–1554) in terms of gender, legend and law (PDF) (PhD thesis). University of Leeds. pp. 19–20. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 November 2018.
- ^ A History of the Maghrib in the Islamic Period, Jamil M. Abun-Nasr, 1987, pp. 51–52
- ISBN 978-0-521-20981-6.
- ^ a b c d e f g h "Fes". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Britannica Concise Encyclopedia. 3 Mar. 2007
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aq ar as at au av Le Tourneau, Roger (1949). Fès avant le protectorat: étude économique et sociale d'une ville de l'occident musulman (in French). Casablanca: Société Marocaine de Librairie et d'Édition.
- ^ ISBN 978-2-86770-152-8.
- ^ a b c d e f Rivet, Daniel (2012). Histoire du Maroc: de Moulay Idrîs à Mohammed VI (in French). Fayard.
- ^ The Places Where Men Pray Together at Google Books
- ^ ISBN 978-0-521-33767-0.
- ^ a b c Eustache, D. (2012). "Idrīsids". In Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P. (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.). Brill.
- ^ Witkam, Jan Just (2007), Inventory of the Oriental Manuscripts of the Library of the University of Leiden (PDF), Ter Lugt Press, archived (PDF) from the original on 2023-05-28, retrieved 2023-05-23
- .
- ^ ISBN 0-521-33767-4.
- ^ a b c d e f Le Tourneau, Roger; Terrasse, Henri (2012). "Fās". In Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P. (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.). Brill.
- ^ a b c Madani, Tariq (1999). "Le réseau hydraulique de la ville de Fès". Archéologie islamique. 8–9: 119–142.
- ^ S2CID 219625871.
- ^ Gaillard, Henri (1905). Une ville de l'Islam: Fès. Paris: J. André. pp. 32.
- ^ "La magnifique rénovation des 27 monuments de Fès – Conseil Régional du Tourisme (CRT) de Fès" (in French). Archived from the original on 2021-02-27. Retrieved 2020-03-31.
- ^ a b c d Gaillard, Henri (1905). Une ville de l'Islam: Fès. Paris: J. André.
- ^ The Almoravids and the Meanings of Jihad at Google Books
- ^ ISBN 978-2-86770-152-8.
- ^ a b Morocco 2009, p. 252, at Google Books
- ISBN 978-1-136-77155-2.
- ISBN 978-0-521-19189-0.
- ^ a b O'Meara, Simon M. (2004). An architectural Investigation of Marinid and Wattasid Fes Medina (674–961/1276–1554), in Terms of Gender, Legend, and Law (PDF). University of Leeds. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2018-11-02. Retrieved 2012-02-25.
- ^ Roudh el-Kartas: Histoire des souverains du Maghreb, p. 459, at Google Books
- ^ ISBN 978-2-35031-490-7.
- ^ Encyclopedia of Islam at Google Books
- ^ a b Marçais, Georges (1954). L'architecture musulmane d'Occident. Paris: Arts et métiers graphiques.
- ^ ISBN 978-3-902782-31-1.
- ^ a b Kubisch, Natascha (2011). "Maghreb – Architecture" in Hattstein, Markus and Delius, Peter (eds.) Islam: Art and Architecture. h.f.ullmann.
- ^ JSTOR 1595913.
- ^ Zafrani, H. "Mallāḥ". In Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P. (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.). Brill.
- ^ JSTOR 991758.
- ISBN 978-1-317-75160-1.
- ^ ISBN 978-2-35031-490-7.
- ISBN 978-0-7486-9648-2.
- ISSN 1873-9830.
- ^ a b Véronne, Chantal de la (2012). "Saʿdids". In Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P. (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.). Brill.
- ^ a b Terrasse, Henri (1968). La Mosquée al-Qaraouiyin à Fès; avec une étude de Gaston Deverdun sur les inscriptions historiques de la mosquée. Paris: Librairie C. Klincksieck.
- ISBN 978-2-35906-182-6.
- ISBN 978-0-7486-9648-2.
- ^ OCLC 1139892409.
- ^ a b c d Bressolette, Henri; Delaroziere, Jean (1983). "Fès-Jdid de sa fondation en 1276 au milieu du XXe siècle" (PDF). Hespéris-Tamuda: 245–318. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2021-09-29. Retrieved 2021-09-29.
- ^ Brigaglia, Andrea (2013–2014). "Sufi Revival and Islamic Literacy: Tijaniyya Writings in Twentieth-Century Nigeria". Annual Review of Islam in Africa. 12 (1). Archived from the original on 2021-09-03. Retrieved 2019-11-18.
- ^ OCLC 855022840.
- ^ "الكتاني، ثمن البيعة المشروطة". زمان (in Arabic). 2017-06-12. Archived from the original on 2020-04-10. Retrieved 2020-06-25.
- ISBN 0-7146-4949-X.
- ISBN 90-04-06295-5.
- ISBN 978-1-85168-634-6.
- from the original on 2021-10-28. Retrieved 2021-09-30.
- ISBN 978-0-226-22757-3.
- ^ S2CID 145686603.
- ^ Holden, Stacy E. (2008). "The Legacy of French Colonialism: Preservation in Morocco's Fez Medina". APT Bulletin. 39 (4): 5–11.
- ^ a b Jelidi, Charlotte (2012). Fès, la fabrication d'une ville nouvelle (1912–1956). ENS Éditions.
- ^ Abu-Lughod, Janet (1975). "Moroccan Cities: Apartheid and the Serendipity of Conservation". In Abu-Lughod, Ibrahim (ed.). African Themes: Northwestern University Studies in Honor of Gwendolen M. Carter. Northwestern University Press. pp. 77–111.
- ^ Abu-Lughod, Janet (1980). Rabat: Urban Apartheid in Morocco. Princeton University Press.
- ^ Aouchar, Amina (2005). Fès, Meknès. Flammarion. pp. 192–194.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-5017-0424-6.
- .
- ^ a b c d Aouchar, Amina (2005). Fès, Meknès. Flammarion.
- ISBN 978-3-030-17450-7.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-313-32061-3, pp. 154–157
- ^ a b "Sidi Mohamed Ben Abdellah University". Times Higher Education (THE). 2020-09-18. Archived from the original on 2020-10-17. Retrieved 2020-09-21.
- ^ a b c d e "Medina of Fez". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Archived from the original on 2020-04-23. Retrieved 2021-09-29.
- from the original on 2021-02-14. Retrieved 2021-01-10.
- ^ "5 Die, 127 Hurt as Worst Riots in 7 Years Sweep Morocco City". Los Angeles Times. 1990-12-16. Archived from the original on 2021-02-14. Retrieved 2021-01-10.
- ISBN 978-0-7103-0505-3.
- ISBN 978-0-19-986125-5.
- ^ "La magnifique rénovation des 27 monuments de Fès – Conseil Régional du Tourisme (CRT) de Fès" (in French). Archived from the original on 2021-02-27. Retrieved 2021-01-10.
- ^ "Facelift helps Morocco's Old City of Fez lure tourists |". AW. Archived from the original on 2021-01-13. Retrieved 2021-01-10.
- ^ "Revitalization of the Fez River: A Reclaimed Public Space | Smart Cities Dive". www.smartcitiesdive.com. Archived from the original on 2020-09-16. Retrieved 2020-03-31.
- ^ "Aziza Chaouni presents a 2014 TED Talk on her efforts to uncover the Fez River in Morocco". Daniels. 2014-03-20. Archived from the original on 2020-06-27. Retrieved 2020-03-31.
- ^ a b c d e f The Rough Guide to Morocco (12th ed.). Rough Guides. 2019. pp. 158–181.
- ^ Aouchar, Amina (2005). Fès, Meknès. Flammarion. p. 123.
- ^ "Guía resumida del clima en España (1981–2010) – Agencia Estatal de Meteorología – AEMET. Gobierno de España". Archived from the original on 2012-11-18. Retrieved 2014-09-13.
- ^ a b "Voodoo Skies – Fes Monthly Temperature weather history". October 6, 2015. Archived from the original on 2015-10-06.
- ^ "World Meteorological Organization Climate Normals for 1991–2020". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from the original on 5 October 2023. Retrieved 5 October 2023.
- ^ "World Meteorological Organization Climate Normals for 1981–2010". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from the original on 9 April 2022. Retrieved 10 November 2021.
- ^ a b "Fes, Morocco – Climate data". Weather Atlas. Archived from the original on March 2, 2017. Retrieved March 2, 2017.
- ^ El Masaiti, Amira (2017-12-19). "In just Ten Years, Foreign Population in Morocco Increased by 63%". Morocco World News. Archived from the original on 2023-11-07. Retrieved 2023-11-07.
- ^ "Morocco", The World Factbook, Central Intelligence Agency, 2023-11-14, retrieved 2023-11-29
- ISSN 1558-741X.
- ^ S2CID 144607607.
- S2CID 147855077.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-415-56778-7.
- ISBN 978-1-4411-5813-0.
- ^ "Languages in Morocco, Miscellaneous in Morocco". Expat. Archived from the original on 2021-09-20. Retrieved 2021-09-20.
- ^ "Moroccan Arabic – Darija | Qalam wa Lawh Center for Arabic Studies". Qalam Wa Lawh (in French). Archived from the original on 2021-09-21. Retrieved 2021-09-20.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-349-48644-1, archivedfrom the original on 2023-08-06, retrieved 2023-08-06
- ^ "What language is spoken in Fez Morocco?". archinfos.com. Archived from the original on 2021-11-01. Retrieved 2021-09-20.
- ^ Le Tourneau, Roger; Paye, L. (1935). "La corporation des tanneurs et l'industrie de la tannerie à Fès". Hespéris. 21: 167–240. Archived from the original on 2020-09-16. Retrieved 2020-09-21.
- ^ "Business in Fez, Othman Benjelloun (Morocco)". Africa EENI Global Business School & University. Archived from the original on 2020-09-30. Retrieved 2020-09-21.
- ^ Berriane, Johara (2015). "Pilgrimage, Spiritual Tourism and the Shaping of Transnational 'Imagined Communities': the Case of the Tidjani Ziyara to Fez". International Journal of Religious Tourism and Pilgrimage. 3 (2). Archived from the original on 2020-07-23. Retrieved 2020-09-21.
- ^ "Fez-Meknes". Oxford Business Group. 2019-03-13. Archived from the original on 2020-10-30. Retrieved 2020-09-21.
- ^ "Fès" (in French). Region of Fès-Meknès. Archived from the original on 2021-10-16. Retrieved 2021-10-16.
- ^ a b c "Population Légale des Régions, Provinces, Préfectures, Municipalitiés, Arrondissements et Communes du Royaume d'Aprés les Résultats du RGPH 2014" (in Arabic and French). High Commission for Planning. 8 April 2015. Archived from the original on 1 May 2022.
- ^ ISBN 978-2-8111-1328-5. Retrieved 2021-10-16.
- ^ "Abdeslam Bekkali du RNI, élu président du Conseil communal de Fès" (in French). MAP. 2021-09-20. Archived from the original on 2021-10-16. Retrieved 2021-10-16.
- ^ Le rôle des élus au sein des communes du Maroc: vers une gouvernance locale plus proche des citoyens (PDF) (Report) (in French). OECD. 2017. p. 28. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2021-10-16. Retrieved 2021-10-16.
- ^ "Fès: Bekkali prend les rênes de la mairie". LesEco.ma (in French). 2021-09-15. Archived from the original on 2021-10-16. Retrieved 2021-10-16.
- ^ Benabdellah, Yahya (2021-09-20). "Abdeslam Bekkali (RNI) élu nouveau maire de Fès". Médias 24 (in French). Archived from the original on 2021-10-16. Retrieved 2021-10-16.
- ^ Kasraoui, Safaa (2021-09-20). "RNI's Abdeslam Bekkali Becomes New Mayor of Fez". Morocco World News. Archived from the original on 2021-10-16. Retrieved 2021-10-16.
- ^ Jettou, Driss. Rapport d'activités relatif à l'exercice 2013: Volume II, Livre III (PDF) (Report). Court of Accounts of Morocco. p. 47. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2021-04-04. Retrieved 2021-10-16.
- ^ Es-Sallak, Nada (2021-06-14). "Histoire urbaine de la ville de Fès et Pouvoirs politiques". InteraXXIons (1): 25–40. Archived from the original on 2021-10-16. Retrieved 2021-10-16.
- ^ "Ambiance électorale à Fès: Sur un air de changement". Le Matin. 2011-11-25. Archived from the original on 2021-10-17. Retrieved 2021-10-16.
- ^ Benabdellah, Yahya (2021-09-17). "Législatives 2021: qui a été élu dans votre circonscription ? (17 cartes interactives)". Médias 24 (in French). Archived from the original on 2021-10-17. Retrieved 2021-10-16.
- ^ Salameh, Ramy (2016-05-27). "Fez celebrates Morocco's women through sacred music". Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on 2023-08-06. Retrieved 2023-08-06.
- ISBN 978-1-350-03382-5.
- ISBN 978-1-4648-0981-1.
- ISBN 978-1-907065-07-1.
- ^ "The 10 Best Royal Palace of Fez (Fes Dar el-Makhzen) Tours & Tickets 2021 | Viator". www.viator.com. Archived from the original on 2021-10-20. Retrieved 2021-10-20.
- ^ "What does Medina mean?". www.definitions.net. Archived from the original on 2021-10-20. Retrieved 2021-10-20.
- ^ "Morocco". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Archived from the original on 2023-02-17. Retrieved 2021-09-29.
- ^ "Qantara – The al-Qarawīyīn Mosque". www.qantara-med.org. Archived from the original on 2021-09-30. Retrieved 2021-09-29.
- ^ "Jami' al-Andalusiyyin". Archnet. Archived from the original on 2021-01-11. Retrieved 2021-09-29.
- ^ Terrasse, Henri (1942). La mosquée des Andalous à Fès (in French). Paris: Les Éditions d'art et d'histoire.
- ^ Terrasse, Henri (1964). "La mosquée almohade de Bou Jeloud à Fès". Al-Andalus. 29 (2): 355–363.
- ^ Abu al-Hassan Mosque Archived 2021-01-11 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved January 22, 2018.
- ^ Fez. Archnet. Retrieved January 23, 2018.
- ISBN 978-2-35906-335-6.
- ^ El Mghari, Mina (2017). "Tendances architecturales de la mosquée marocaine (XVIIème-XIXème siècles)". Hespéris-Tamuda. LII (3): 229–254.
- ^ Mezzine, Mohamed. "Mulay Idris Mausoleum". Discover Islamic Art – Virtual Museum. Archived from the original on 2021-10-19. Retrieved 2021-09-29.
- ^ "Mosquée Imam Malik". www.madein.city (in French). Archived from the original on 2021-02-27. Retrieved 2021-02-12.
- ^ "La mosquée Imam Malik, un joyau architectural au cœur de la capitale spirituelle". MapFes (in French). 2021-04-21. Archived from the original on 2021-10-20. Retrieved 2021-10-20.
- ^ "Fès | Masjid Tunis". Archnet. Archived from the original on 2021-09-02. Retrieved 2021-02-12.
- ^ Congress, World Jewish. "World Jewish Congress". World Jewish Congress. Archived from the original on 2019-04-02. Retrieved 2021-01-12.
- ^ Audurier Cros, Alix. "L'Église St François d'Assise, Fes, Maroc" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2019-12-07.
- ^ "Diocèse de Rabat". www.dioceserabat.org. Archived from the original on 2020-07-11. Retrieved 2021-01-12.
- ^ "Église de Saint François d'Assise". GCatholic. Archived from the original on 2020-08-11. Retrieved 2021-01-12.
- ^ Terrasse, Henri (1942). La mosquée des Andalous à Fès. Paris: Les Éditions d'art et d'histoire.
- ^ Bloom, Jonathan M. (2020). Architecture of the Islamic West: North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula, 700–1800. Yale University Press.
- ^ "Oldest higher-learning institution, oldest university". Guinnessworldrecords.com. Archived from the original on 7 October 2014. Retrieved 22 August 2018.
- ^ a b c Penell, C.R. (2013), Morocco: From Empire to Independence; Oneworld Publications. pp. 66–67.[ISBN missing]
- from the original on 2019-04-29. Retrieved 2023-08-06.
- ^ Shiratin Madrasa. Archnet. Retrieved January 23, 2018.
- ISBN 0-521-33767-4.
- ^ Sidi Ahmed al-Tijani Zawiya Archived 2021-01-12 at the Wayback Machine. Archnet. Retrieved January 22, 2018.
- ISBN 979-10-92046-17-5. Archivedfrom the original on 2020-08-17. Retrieved 2020-06-15.
- ISBN 978-9954-21-086-4.
- ^ نفائس فاس العتيقة : بناء 13 قصبة لأغراض عسكرية Archived 2021-01-28 at the Wayback Machine. Assabah. Retrieved January 11, 2018.
- ^ البرج الشمالي Archived 2018-01-22 at the Wayback Machine. Museum with no Frontiers. Retrieved January 22, 2018.
- ^ Chouara Tannery Archived 2021-01-11 at the Wayback Machine. Archnet. Retrieved January 22, 2018.
- ^ Why You Need to Visit Fez in 20 Photos Archived 2021-01-11 at the Wayback Machine. Bloomberg. Retrieved January 22, 2018.
- ^ Aziza Chaouni: Hybrid Urban Sutures: Filling in the Gaps in the Medina of Fez." Archit 96 no. 1 (2007): 58–63.
- ISBN 2-7475-2388-8.
- ^ "Alami House". Archnet. Archived from the original on 2021-01-11. Retrieved 2020-01-24.
- ^ "Accommodation in Morocco | Where to stay in Morocco". Rough Guides. Archived from the original on 2021-10-06. Retrieved 2021-09-29.
- ^ "Histoire du Maroc: Palais Jamai, Patrimoine universel. – Cabinet Consulting Expertise International" (in French). Archived from the original on 2021-04-11. Retrieved 2020-06-15.
- ^ "Palais Glaoui | Fez, Morocco Attractions". www.lonelyplanet.com. Archived from the original on 2017-09-07. Retrieved 2020-01-24.
- ^ Mezzine, Mohamed. "Batha Palace". Discover Islamic Art, Museum With No Frontiers. Archived from the original on 2021-01-20.
- ^ a b Parker, Richard (1981). A practical guide to Islamic Monuments in Morocco. Charlottesville, VA: The Baraka Press.
- ^ "Jnane Sbile or Bab Bou Jeloud garden in Fez". Morocco.FalkTime. 2018-07-09. Archived from the original on 2021-01-11. Retrieved 2019-05-09.
- ^ Funduq al-Najjariyyin Archived 2021-01-11 at the Wayback Machine. Archnet. Retrieved January 22, 2018.
- ^ "Fès: Les fondouks de la médina restaurés et labellisés". L'Économiste (in French). 2016-04-08. Archived from the original on 2021-01-17. Retrieved 2020-04-07.
- ^ "Qantara – The al-Shammā'īn Funduq". www.qantara-med.org. Archived from the original on 2021-01-23. Retrieved 2020-04-07.
- ^ El Idrissi El Omari, Mouhcine; Laoukili, Montaser; Akasbi, Mounir (2017). "Fouilles archéologiques à Funduq Ṣāgha à Fès: Éléments pour une lecture de l'urbanisme de la ville". Hespéris-Tamuda. LII (3): 209–227.
- S2CID 111065262.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-84407-600-0.
- ^ a b c Raftani, Kamal; Radoine, Hassan (2008). "The Architecture of the Hammams of Fez, Morocco". Archnet-IJAR. 2 (3): 56–68. Archived from the original on 2020-09-16. Retrieved 2020-09-16.
- ^ Secret, Edm. (1942). "Les hammams de Fes" (PDF). Bulletin de l'Institut d'Hygiène du Maroc. 2: 61–78. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2021-08-30. Retrieved 2020-09-16.
- ^ Terrasse, Henri (1950). "Trois Bains Mérinides du Maroc". Mélanges offerts à William Marçais par l'Institut d'études islamiques de l'Université de Paris. Paris: Éditions G.-P. Maisonneuve. pp. 311–320.
- ^ ISBN 978-2-84788-239-1. Archivedfrom the original on 2021-10-21. Retrieved 2021-10-20.
- ^ "Place de la Résistance". www.madein.city (in French). Archived from the original on 2021-10-20. Retrieved 2021-10-20.
- ^ ISBN 978-3-319-32485-2.
- ^ "Place de Florence". www.madein.city (in French). Archived from the original on 2021-10-20. Retrieved 2021-10-20.
- ^ "Un concours d'architecture maroco-italien pour restaurer une place de Fès". Bladi.net (in French). Archived from the original on 2021-10-20. Retrieved 2021-10-20.
- ISBN 978-1-61069-580-0. Retrieved 2021-11-17.
- ^ Johnston, Keith; Keane, Augustus Henry (1880). Africa. E. Stanford. p. 33.
- ^ Harris, Lawrence (1909). With Mulai Hafid at Fez: Behind the Scenes in Morocco. Smith, elder & Company. p. 139. Retrieved 2021-11-17.
- ^ Conder, Josiah (1834). A dictionary of geography, ancient and modern. T. Tegg. p. 226. Retrieved 2021-11-17.
- ^ أبو عبد الله محمد بن سليمان الجزولي (توفي 1465) (1885). دلائل الخيرات (دلایل الخیرات). Archived from the original on 2017-05-13. Retrieved 2021-11-03.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - ^ "خزانة جامعة القرويين ترقمن مخطوطات نفيسة بخط ابن رشد وابن خلدون". Hespress – هسبريس جريدة إلكترونية مغربية (in Arabic). 2021-10-14. Archived from the original on 2021-11-03. Retrieved 2021-11-03.
- ^ ISBN 979-10-92046-17-5. Archivedfrom the original on 2020-08-17. Retrieved 2020-06-15.
- ^ Hoh, Anchi (2019-08-16). "Stargazing: Yiddish Theater and Hebrew Calendars Come Together in the Library of Congress | 4 Corners of the World: International Collections and Studies at the Library of Congress". blogs.loc.gov. Archived from the original on 2021-03-23. Retrieved 2021-11-03.
- ISBN 978-0-521-39727-8.
- ^ "Samuel ben Isaac Nedivot & his Son Isaac Issue the First Book Printed on the Continent of Africa: History of Information". 2019-12-15. Archived from the original on 2019-12-15. Retrieved 2021-11-02.
- ^ "Hebraic Collections: The Books of the People of the Book". Library of Congress. 2019-04-20. Archived from the original on 2019-04-20. Retrieved 2021-11-02.
- ISBN 978-1-119-01821-6.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-226-14340-8.
- ISBN 978-0-19-751649-2.
- ^ Islamkotob. الأعلام – ج 7 – محمد بن قاسم – نافع بن الحارثpublisher=IslamKotob (in Arabic).
- ISBN 978-0-674-05082-2.
- ^ Habibeh Rahim (1996). Inscription as Art in the World of Islam: Unity in Diversity: at the Emily Lowe Gallery, April 14–May 24, 1996. Hofstra Museum, Hofstra University. p. 65.
- from the original on 2022-10-01. Retrieved 2023-10-02.
- ^ ISBN 1-873938-49-7.
- ^ a b "Composition". Barjeel Art Foundation. 2017-08-24. Archived from the original on 2021-07-22. Retrieved 2021-07-22.
- ^ "مالكة العاصمي: أنواع الأدب الشعبي بالمغرب – طرب الآلة – – وزارة الثقافة". 2021-10-08. Archived from the original on 2021-10-08. Retrieved 2021-11-03.
- OCLC 496273089.
- ^ "طرب الآلة.. ذلك الفن الباذخ". مغرس. Archived from the original on 2022-04-09. Retrieved 2021-11-03.
- ^ "Museums and Galleries – Regional Council of Tourism Fez". Archived from the original on 2021-10-21. Retrieved 2021-10-21.
- ^ "Le Matin – Le complexe Al Houria ouvre enfin ses portes". Le Matin (in French). 21 April 2005. Archived from the original on 2021-10-21. Retrieved 2021-10-21.
- ^ "Cultural Complex al Houria – Regional Council of Tourism Fez". Archived from the original on 2021-10-23. Retrieved 2021-10-21.
- ^ "Complexe culturel de Fès Al Houria, concert, spetacle,humour,fès, maroc". www.babelfan.ma (in French). Archived from the original on 2020-10-01. Retrieved 2021-10-21.
- ^ "French Institute of Fez – Regional Council of Tourism Fez". Archived from the original on 2021-10-21. Retrieved 2021-10-20.
- ^ "Cervantes Institute in Fez – Regional Council of Tourism Fez". Archived from the original on 2021-10-24. Retrieved 2021-10-20.
- ^ "American Language Center (ALC) and the Arabic Language Institute (ALIF) – Regional Council of Tourism Fez". Archived from the original on 2021-10-21. Retrieved 2021-10-21.
- ^ "General Information about the Arabic Language Institute in Fez". Arabic Language Institute in Fez. Archived from the original on 2021-11-01. Retrieved 2021-10-21.
- ^ Hemidach, Amjad. "ALC-ALIF in Fez: Learn Language, Understand Culture, Serve the Community". Morocco World News. Archived from the original on 2021-11-01. Retrieved 2021-10-21.
- ^ "Spotlight on: Fes Festival of World Sacred Music". Lonely Planet. Archived from the original on 2021-10-21. Retrieved 2021-10-20.
- ^ "Fès et son Festival – Festival de Fès des Musiques Sacrées du Monde" (in French) (26ème ed.). Archived from the original on 2021-10-21. Retrieved 2021-10-20.
- ^ Ennaji, Moha. "Fez Celebrates its 15th International Festival of Amazigh Culture". Morocco World News. Archived from the original on 2021-10-21. Retrieved 2021-10-21.
- ^ "Festival Amazigh Fès". www.festivalamazighfes.com. Archived from the original on 2021-10-21. Retrieved 2021-10-21.
- ^ "Festival of Amazigh Culture – Regional Council of Tourism Fez". Archived from the original on 2021-10-21. Retrieved 2021-10-21.
- ^ "Spotlight on: Festival of Sufi Culture in Fez, Morocco". Lonely Planet. Archived from the original on 2021-10-21. Retrieved 2021-10-21.
- ^ "Fez Festival of Sufi Culture – Regional Council of Tourism Fez". Archived from the original on 2021-09-27. Retrieved 2021-10-21.
- ^ Staff Writer. "Fes to Host 15th Annual Festival of Malhoun Art July 21–29". Morocco World News. Archived from the original on 2021-10-21. Retrieved 2021-10-21.
- ^ "Music Festival el Malhoun – Regional Council of Tourism Fez". Archived from the original on 2020-02-03. Retrieved 2021-10-21.
- ^ The Rough Guide to Morocco (12th ed.). Rough Guides. 2019. pp. 43–44, 186.
- ^ "Moussem of Moulay Idriss – Regional Council of Tourism Fez". Archived from the original on 2021-10-21. Retrieved 2021-10-21.
- ^ "Fès: Ouverture du Moussem annuel de Moulay Idriss Al Azhar". LesEco.ma (in French). 2019-09-26. Archived from the original on 2021-10-21. Retrieved 2021-10-21.
- ^ a b Echabouch, Elmahdi (2022-03-20). "Fez To Host Its First-Ever Long-Distance Running Festival". Morocco World News.
- ^ "Qui Somme Nous". Fes Running Festival (in French). Retrieved 2023-12-26.
- ^ "Site officiel du MAS". MAS. Archived from the original on 15 September 2017. Retrieved 26 April 2020.
- ^ "Wydad Athletic Club de Fès". SoccerWay. Archived from the original on 2021-11-01. Retrieved 2021-09-15.
- ^ "Stadiums: Complexe sportif de Fès". Goalzz. Archived from the original on 2021-09-15. Retrieved 2021-09-15.
- ^ "Morocco to build new stadium, upgrade six others before 2030 World Cup". Reuters. 20 October 2023. Retrieved 1 December 2023.
- ^ "Morocco and East African co-bid to host future Africa Cup of Nations finals". Reuters. 27 September 2023. Retrieved 1 December 2023.
- ^ "MAR – Hope in Morocco basketball". FIBA.basketball. Archived from the original on 2021-09-15. Retrieved 2021-09-15.
- ^ "Moroccan Basketball, News, Teams, Scores, Stats, Standings, Awards – afrobasket". www.afrobasket.com. Archived from the original on 2021-05-26. Retrieved 2021-09-15.
- ^ "Le projet du Jardin botanique de Fès n'a toujours pas vu le jour" ["The Fez Botanical Garden project has still not been created"]. Le Matin (in French). 2014-04-24. Retrieved 2023-12-28.
- ^ "Fès : la ville manque d'espaces verts" [Fez: the city lacks green spaces]. LesEco.ma (in French). 2022-02-07. Retrieved 2023-12-28.
- ^ Al-Zaghari, Muhammad (2015-08-08). "الجماعة الحضرية تفتح حديقة أمريكا اللاتينية في وجه الزوار بمدينة فاس" [The Urban Community opens the Latin American Garden to visitors in Fez]. Al-Obour Media (in Arabic). Archived from the original on 2017-12-09.
- ^ Al-Kuirti, Rachid (2016-08-06). "حديقة الطيور بفاس .. منتزه يوفر الراحة لزوار العاصمة العلمية" [Bird Park in Fez...a park that provides comfort for visitors to the scientific capital]. Hespress (in Arabic). Retrieved 2023-12-28.
- ^ "Tourism in Fez-Meknes grows on the strength of religious and wellness visitors". Oxford Business Group. 2019-03-13. Archived from the original on 2020-10-01. Retrieved 2020-09-21.
- ^ "::.. Oncf ..::". Oncf.ma. Archived from the original on 2009-02-28. Retrieved 2009-05-05.
- ^ "Transportation in Fez, Morocco". Lonely Planet. Archived from the original on 2020-12-14. Retrieved 2020-09-21.
- ^ "Bus in Fez, Morocco". Lonely Planet. Archived from the original on 2021-09-03. Retrieved 2020-09-21.
- ^ Misane, Laila. "The city of Fez: Technical and Institutional strengthening for a sustainable management of water resources". International Water Association. Archived from the original on 2023-05-11. Retrieved 2023-05-11.
- ^ Benoliel, Sharon (June 2003). "Strengthening Education in the Muslim World: Country Profiles and Analysis" (PDF). United States Agency for International Development.
- ^ Guinness World Records, Oldest University Archived 2014-10-07 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Larbi Arbaoui, Al Karaouin of Fez: The Oldest University in the World Archived 2013-09-17 at the Wayback Machine, Morocco World News, 2 October 2012.
- ^ a b "Présentation institutionnelle". Portail USMBA (in French). Archived from the original on 2020-09-22. Retrieved 2020-09-21.
- ^ "l'USMBA en chiffres". Portail USMBA (in French). Archived from the original on 2020-09-22. Retrieved 2020-09-21.
- ^ "UEMF – Tout sur Université Euromed de Fès". Etudiant.ma. Archived from the original on 2021-01-16. Retrieved 2020-09-21.
- ^ "L'UEMF | UEMF". www.ueuromed.org. Archived from the original on 2020-08-21. Retrieved 2020-09-21.
- ^ "Daoudi autorise une première université privée à Fès". L'Economiste (in French). 2013-12-26. Archived from the original on 2018-10-05. Retrieved 2020-09-21.
- ^ "Fès se dote d'une école d'ingénieurs". L'Economiste (in French). 2006-07-20. Archived from the original on 2018-10-05. Retrieved 2020-09-21.
- ^ "Université Privée de Fès – 1ère Université Privée à Fès Reconnue par l'Etat" (in French). Archived from the original on 2019-03-16. Retrieved 2020-09-21.
- ^ "Twin Towns". fescity.com. Fes City. 8 January 2019. Archived from the original on 2020-11-16. Retrieved 2020-12-02.
- ^ "Profile of Sister Cities". gochengdu.cn. Go Chengdu. Archived from the original on 2020-12-05. Retrieved 2020-12-02.
- ^ "Cidades Geminadas". cm-coimbra.pt (in Portuguese). Coimbra. Archived from the original on 2020-10-24. Retrieved 2020-12-02.
- ^ "Las 12 hermanas de Córdoba". diariocordoba.com (in Spanish). Diario Córdoba. 2020-02-10. Archived from the original on 2020-10-21. Retrieved 2020-12-02.
- ^ "العلاقات التي تربط مدينة أريحا بالمدن الأجنبية". jericho-city.ps (in Arabic). Jericho. Archived from the original on 2020-12-06. Retrieved 2020-12-02.
- ^ "Sister Cities". wuxinews.com.cn. Wuxi News. Archived from the original on 2021-01-28. Retrieved 2020-12-02.
- ^ "Sister cities". xa.gov.cn. Xi'an. Archived from the original on 2019-05-27. Retrieved 2020-12-02.
- ISBN 978-1-59339-837-8.
- ^ Strack-Zimmermann, Benjamin. "Abdelilah Bagui (Player)". National Football Teams. Archived from the original on 2022-01-09. Retrieved 2022-06-05.
- ^ Abdellatif Laâbi, Victor W. Reinking, Anne O. George, The world's embrace: selected poems, Foreword by Ammiel Accalay, pp. x–xi
- ^ "Abdessalam Benjelloun – Player Profile – Football". Eurosport. Archived from the original on 2023-08-06. Retrieved 2022-06-05.
- ^ "Adel Taarabt". Ligue de Football Professionnel. Archived from the original on 2 February 2009. Retrieved 30 October 2009.
- ^ "Throne Day: King Decorates Three Moroccans for Outstanding Scientific and Academic Achievements". Morocco World News. 2017-07-31. Retrieved 2024-04-07.
- ISBN 978-1-107-04296-4.
- ^ "Akram Roumani Biography and Statistics". Sports-Reference.com. Archived from the original on 2020-04-18. Retrieved 2010-02-16.
- ^ "Al-Lamiya de az-Zaqqaq, al-'Amal al-Fasi de 'Abd ar-Rahman al-Fasi, y al-'Amal al-Mutlaq de as-Siyilmasi" by Henry Toledano, International Journal of Middle East Studies, vol. 5, 1974.
- ^ "Anas Zniti, MAS goalkeeper" (in French). Affaire Maroc. Archived from the original on 2012-04-29. Retrieved 2021-09-15.
- ^ José Martínez Delgado, 'Dunash ben Labraṭ ha-Levi', in Encyclopedia of Jews in the Islamic World, ed. by Norman A. Stillman and others (Leiden: Brill, 2010), s.v.
- ^ "السيرة الذاتية للسيد حميد شباط". Chabatonline.net. Archived from the original on 2018-01-22. Retrieved 16 October 2012.
- ^ Singer, Isidore, ed. (1901–1906). "Uziel". The Jewish Encyclopedia. New York: Funk & Wagnalls. Archived from the original on 2023-09-05.
- ^ "Bennani, Karim". Benezit Dictionary of Artists.
- ^ "Bennani Claims First WTCC Victory in Second Shanghai Race – WTCC – The Checkered Flag". The Checkered Flag. 2014-10-12. Archived from the original on 2017-12-16. Retrieved 2017-12-16.
- ^ Maddy-Weitzman, Bruce (2011). The Berber Identity Movement and the Challenge to North African States. University of Texas Press, Austin.
- ^ "Morocco's Royal Family Celebrates Birthday of Princess Lalla Salma". Morocco World News. 10 May 2015. Archived from the original on 2022-06-05. Retrieved 2022-06-05.
- ^ Chechik, Sonya (12 June 2019). "Moroccan Scientist Rachid Yazami: The Man Who Gave us Cell Phone Power". Morocco World News. Retrieved 2024-03-08.
- ^ Vázquez de Balmaseda, Ignacio (5 May 2016). "Leyendas de la Real: López Ufarte" [Real legends: López Ufarte] (in Spanish). Vavel. Archived from the original on 29 December 2016. Retrieved 28 December 2016.
- ISBN 978-0-8018-7225-9.
- ^ 2014 African Championships in Athletics Results Archived 3 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine. Marrakech2014. Retrieved on 19 August 2016.
- ^ Okeleji, Oluwashina (10 February 2019). "Morocco's En-Nesyri makes La Liga history". BBC Sport. Archived from the original on 2022-06-05. Retrieved 2022-06-05.
- ISBN 978-90-441-1969-5. Retrieved 12 January 2011.
Further reading
- Le Tourneau, Roger (1974) [1961]. Fez in the Age of the Marinides. Translated by Besse Clement. Oklahoma University. ISBN 0-8061-1198-4.
- Vigo, Julian (2006). "The Renovation of Fes' medina qdima and the (re)-Creation of the Traditional". Writing the City, Transforming the City. New Delhi: Katha. pp. 44–58.
External links
- Media related to Fes at Wikimedia Commons
- Fez travel guide from Wikivoyage
- The dictionary definition of Fez at Wiktionary
- ArchNet – "Fès" (Contains catalogue of monuments, pictures, and explanatory text)