Fiber-optic communication
Fiber-optic communication is a method of
Optical fiber is used by many telecommunications companies to transmit telephone signals, internet communication, and cable television signals. Researchers at
Background
First developed in the 1970s, fiber-optics have revolutionized the
The process of communicating using fiber optics involves the following basic steps:
- creating the optical signal involving the use of a transmitter,electrical signal
- relaying the signal along the fiber, ensuring that the signal does not become too distorted or weak
- receiving the optical signal
- converting it into an electrical signal
Applications
Optical fiber is used by telecommunications companies to transmit telephone signals, Internet communication and cable television signals. It is also used in other industries, including medical, defense, government, industrial and commercial. In addition to serving the purposes of telecommunications, it is used as light guides, for imaging tools, lasers, hydrophones for seismic waves, SONAR, and as sensors to measure pressure and temperature.
Due to lower attenuation and interference, optical fiber has advantages over copper wire in long-distance, high-bandwidth applications. However, infrastructure development within cities is relatively difficult and time-consuming, and fiber-optic systems can be complex and expensive to install and operate. Due to these difficulties, early fiber-optic communication systems were primarily installed in long-distance applications, where they can be used to their full transmission capacity, offsetting the increased cost. The prices of fiber-optic communications have dropped considerably since 2000.[10]
The price for rolling out fiber to homes has currently become more cost-effective than that of rolling out a copper-based network. Prices have dropped to $850 per subscriber in the US and lower in countries like The Netherlands, where digging costs are low and housing density is high.[citation needed]
Since 1990, when
History
In 1880
In 1954 Harold Hopkins and Narinder Singh Kapany showed that rolled fiber glass allowed light to be transmitted.[16] Jun-ichi Nishizawa, a Japanese scientist at Tohoku University, proposed the use of optical fibers for communications in 1963.[17] Nishizawa invented the PIN diode and the static induction transistor, both of which contributed to the development of optical fiber communications.[18][19]
In 1966 Charles K. Kao and George Hockham at Standard Telecommunication Laboratories showed that the losses of 1,000 dB/km in existing glass (compared to 5–10 dB/km in coaxial cable) were due to contaminants which could potentially be removed.
Optical fiber with attenuation low enough for communication purposes (about 20
In 1973, Optelecom, Inc., co-founded by the inventor of the laser, Gordon Gould, received a contract from ARPA for one of the first optical communication systems. Developed for Army Missile Command in Huntsville, Alabama, the system was intended to allow a short-range missile with video processing to communicate by laser to the ground by means of a five-kilometer long optical fiber that unspooled from the missile as it flew.[20] Optelecom then delivered the first commercial optical communications system to Chevron.[21]
After a period of research starting from 1975, the first commercial fiber-optic telecommunications system was developed which operated at a wavelength around 0.8 μm and used GaAs semiconductor lasers. This first-generation system operated at a bit rate of 45 Mbit/s with repeater spacing of up to 10 km. Soon on 22 April 1977, General Telephone and Electronics sent the first live telephone traffic through fiber optics at a 6 Mbit/s throughput in Long Beach, California.[citation needed]
In October 1973, Corning Glass signed a development contract with CSELT and Pirelli aimed to test fiber optics in an urban environment: in September 1977, the second cable in this test series, named COS-2, was experimentally deployed in two lines (9 km) in Turin, for the first time in a big city, at a speed of 140 Mbit/s.[22]
The second generation of fiber-optic communication was developed for commercial use in the early 1980s, operated at 1.3 μm and used InGaAsP semiconductor lasers. These early systems were initially limited by multi-mode fiber dispersion, and in 1981 the single-mode fiber was revealed to greatly improve system performance, however practical connectors capable of working with single mode fiber proved difficult to develop. Canadian service provider SaskTel had completed construction of what was then the world's longest commercial fiber optic network, which covered 3,268 km (2,031 mi) and linked 52 communities.[23] By 1987, these systems were operating at bit rates of up to 1.7 Gbit/s with repeater spacing up to 50 km (31 mi).
The first
optimized laser amplification technology. It went into operation in 1988.Third-generation fiber-optic systems operated at 1.55 μm and had losses of about 0.2 dB/km. This development was spurred by the discovery of indium gallium arsenide and the development of the indium gallium arsenide photodiode by Pearsall. Engineers overcame earlier difficulties with pulse-spreading using conventional InGaAsP semiconductor lasers at that wavelength by using dispersion-shifted fibers designed to have minimal dispersion at 1.55 μm or by limiting the laser spectrum to a single longitudinal mode. These developments eventually allowed third-generation systems to operate commercially at 2.5 Gbit/s with repeater spacing in excess of 100 km (62 mi).
The fourth generation of fiber-optic communication systems used
The focus of development for the fifth generation of fiber-optic communications is on extending the wavelength range over which a WDM system can operate. The conventional wavelength window, known as the C band, covers the wavelength range 1525–1565 nm, and dry fiber has a low-loss window promising an extension of that range to 1300–1650 nm.[citation needed] Other developments include the concept of optical solitons, pulses that preserve their shape by counteracting the effects of dispersion with the nonlinear effects of the fiber by using pulses of a specific shape.
In the late 1990s through 2000, industry promoters, and research companies such as KMI, and RHK predicted massive increases in demand for communications bandwidth due to increased use of the
Technology
Modern fiber-optic communication systems generally include optical transmitters that convert electrical signals into optical signals,
Transmitters
The most commonly used optical transmitters are semiconductor devices such as light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and laser diodes. The difference between LEDs and laser diodes is that LEDs produce incoherent light, while laser diodes produce coherent light. For use in optical communications, semiconductor optical transmitters must be designed to be compact, efficient and reliable, while operating in an optimal wavelength range and directly modulated at high frequencies.
In its simplest form, an LED emits light through spontaneous emission, a phenomenon referred to as electroluminescence. The emitted light is incoherent with a relatively wide spectral width of 30–60 nm.[a] The large spectrum width of LEDs is subject to higher fiber dispersion, considerably limiting their bit rate-distance product (a common measure of usefulness). LEDs are suitable primarily for local-area-network applications with bit rates of 10–100 Mbit/s and transmission distances of a few kilometers.
LED light transmission is inefficient, with only about 1% of input power, or about 100 microwatts, eventually converted into launched power coupled into the optical fiber.[28]
LEDs have been developed that use several quantum wells to emit light at different wavelengths over a broad spectrum and are currently in use for local-area wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) applications.
LEDs have been largely superseded by
A semiconductor laser emits light through stimulated emission rather than spontaneous emission, which results in high output power (~100 mW) as well as other benefits related to the nature of coherent light. The output of a laser is relatively directional, allowing high coupling efficiency (~50%) into single-mode fiber. Common VCSEL devices also couple well to multimode fiber. The narrow spectral width also allows for high bit rates since it reduces the effect of chromatic dispersion. Furthermore, semiconductor lasers can be modulated directly at high frequencies because of short recombination time.
Laser diodes are often directly
Receivers
The main component of an optical receiver is a
Since light may be attenuated and distorted while passing through the fiber, photodetectors are typically coupled with a transimpedance amplifier and a limiting amplifier to produce a digital signal in the electrical domain recovered from the incoming optical signal. Further signal processing such as clock recovery from data performed by a phase-locked loop may also be applied before the data is passed on.
Coherent receivers use a local oscillator laser in combination with a pair of hybrid couplers and four photodetectors per polarization, followed by high-speed ADCs and digital signal processing to recover data modulated with QPSK, QAM, or OFDM.[citation needed]
Digital predistortion
An optical communication system
Older digital predistortion methods only addressed linear effects. Recent publications also consider non-linear distortions. Berenguer et al models the Mach–Zehnder modulator as an independent
Fiber cable types
An
Two main types of optical fiber used in optic communications include
Fibre type | Introduced | Performance |
---|---|---|
MMF FDDI 62.5/125 µm |
1987 | 160 MHz·km @ 850 nm |
MMF OM1 62.5/125 µm |
1989 | 200 MHz·km @ 850 nm |
MMF OM2 50/125 µm |
1998 | 500 MHz·km @ 850 nm |
MMF OM3 50/125 µm |
2003 | 1500 MHz·km @ 850 nm |
MMF OM4 50/125 µm |
2008 | 3500 MHz·km @ 850 nm |
MMF OM5 50/125 µm |
2016 | 3500 MHz·km @ 850 nm + 1850 MHz·km @ 950 nm |
SMF OS1 9/125 µm |
1998 | 1.0 dB/km @ 1300/1550 nm |
SMF OS2 9/125 µm |
2000 | 0.4 dB/km @ 1300/1550 nm |
In order to package fiber into a commercially viable product, it typically is protectively coated by using ultraviolet cured
Specialized cables are used for long-distance subsea data transmission, e.g.
Another common practice is to bundle many fiber optic strands within long-distance power transmission cable using, for instance, an optical ground wire. This exploits power transmission rights of way effectively, ensures a power company can own and control the fiber required to monitor its own devices and lines, is effectively immune to tampering, and simplifies the deployment of smart grid technology.
Amplification
The transmission distance of a fiber-optic communication system has traditionally been limited by fiber attenuation and by fiber distortion. By using
An alternative approach is to use
Optical amplifiers have several significant advantages over electrical repeaters. First, an optical amplifier can amplify a very wide band at once which can include hundreds of multiplexed channels, eliminating the need to demultiplex signals at each amplifier. Second, optical amplifiers operate independently of the data rate and modulation format, enabling multiple data rates and modulation formats to co-exist and enabling upgrading of the data rate of a system without having to replace all of the repeaters. Third, optical amplifiers are much simpler than a repeater with the same capabilities and are therefore significantly more reliable. Optical amplifiers have largely replaced repeaters in new installations, although electronic repeaters are still widely used when signal conditioning beyond amplification is required.
Wavelength-division multiplexing
Wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) is the technique of transmitting multiple channels of information through a single optical fiber by sending multiple light beams of different wavelengths through the fiber, each modulated with a separate information channel. This allows the available capacity of optical fibers to be multiplied. This requires a wavelength division multiplexer in the transmitting equipment and a demultiplexer (essentially a
Parameters
Bandwidth–distance product
Because the effect of dispersion increases with the length of the fiber, a fiber transmission system is often characterized by its bandwidth–distance product, usually expressed in units of MHz·km. This value is a product of bandwidth and distance because there is a trade-off between the bandwidth of the signal and the distance over which it can be carried. For example, a common multi-mode fiber with bandwidth–distance product of 500 MHz·km could carry a 500 MHz signal for 1 km or a 1000 MHz signal for 0.5 km.
Record speeds
Using
Standard fiber cables
The following summarizes research using standard telecoms-grade single-mode, single-solid-core fiber cables.
Year | Organization | Aggregate speed | Propagation modes | WDM channels | Per-channel speed | Distance |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
2009 | Alcatel-Lucent[39] | 15.5 Tbit/s | 155 | 100 Gbit/s | 7000 km | |
2010 | NTT[40] | 69.1 Tbit/s | 432 | 171 Gbit/s | 240 km | |
2011 | NEC[41] | 101.7 Tbit/s | 370 | 273 Gbit/s | 165 km | |
2011[A] | KIT[42][43] | 26 Tbit/s | 336 | 77 Gbit/s | 50 km | |
2016 | BT & Huawei[44] | 5.6 Tbit/s | 28 | 200 Gbit/s | about 140 km ? | |
2016[B] | 1 Tbit/s | 1 | 1 Tbit/s | |||
2016 | Nokia-Alcatel-Lucent[46] | 65 Tbit/s | 6600 km | |||
2017 | BT & Huawei[47] | 11.2 Tbit/s | 28 | 400 Gbit/s | 250 km | |
2020[A] | RMIT, Monash & Swinburne Universities[48][49] | 39.0 Tbit/s | 160 | 244 Gbit/s | 76.6 km | |
2020 | UCL[50] | 178.08 Tbit/s | 660 | 25 Gbit/s | 40 km | |
2022 | NICT[51][52][53] | 1.53 Pbit/s | 55 (110-MIMO multiplexer) | 184 (C-band) | 1.03 Tbit/s | 25.9 km |
Specialized cables
The following summarizes research using specialized cables that allow spatial multiplexing to occur, use specialized tri-mode fiber cables or similar specialized fiber optic cables.
Year | Organization | Aggregate speed | No. of propagation modes | No. of cores | WDM channels (per core) | Per channel speed | Distance |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
2011 | NICT[41] | 109.2 Tbit/s | 7 | ||||
2012 | NEC, Corning[54] | 1.05 Pbit/s | 12 | 52.4 km | |||
2013 | University of Southampton[55] | 73.7 Tbit/s | 1 (hollow) | 3x96 (mode DM)[56] | 256 Gbit/s | 310 m | |
2014 | Technical University of Denmark[57] | 43 Tbit/s | 7 | 1045 km | |||
2014 | Eindhoven University of Technology (TU/e) and University of Central Florida (CREOL)[58] | 255 Tbit/s | 7 | 50 | ~728 Gbit/s | 1 km | |
2015 | Sumitomo Electric and RAM Photonics[59]
|
2.15 Pbit/s | 22 | 402 (C+L bands) | 243 Gbit/s | 31 km | |
2017 | NTT[60] | 1 Pbit/s | single-mode | 32 | 46 | 680 Gbit/s | 205.6 km |
2017 | Sumitomo Electric[61]
|
10.16 Pbit/s | 6-mode | 19 | 739 (C+L bands) | 120 Gbit/s | 11.3 km |
2018[A] | NICT[62] | 159 Tbit/s | tri-mode | 1 | 348 | 414 Gbit/s | 1045 km |
2021 | NICT[63] | 319 Tbit/s | single-mode | 4 | 552 (S, C & L bands) | 144.5 Gbit/s | 3001 km (69.8 km) |
2022 | NICT[64][65][66] | 1.02 Pbit/s | 4 | 801 (S+C+L bands) | 51.7 km | ||
2022[B] | Technical University of Denmark[67][68] | 1.84 Pbit/s | 37 | 223 | 223 Gbit/s | 7.9 km |
- ^ New record for throughput using a single core cable, that is, not using spatial multiplexing.
- ^ New record for throughput using a photonic chip.
New techniques
Research from DTU, Fujikura and NTT is notable in that the team was able to reduce the power consumption of the optics to around 5% compared with more mainstream techniques, which could lead to a new generation of very power-efficient optic components.
Year | Organization | Effective speed | No. of Propagation Modes | No. of cores | WDM channels (per core) | Per channel speed | Distance |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
2018 | Hao Hu, et al. (DTU, Fujikura & NTT)[69] | 768 Tbit/s (661 Tbit/s) | Single-mode | 30 | 80 | 320 Gbit/s |
Research conducted by the RMIT University, Melbourne, Australia, have developed a nanophotonic device that carries data on light waves that have been twisted into a spiral form and achieved a 100-fold increase in current attainable fiber optic speeds.[70] The technique is known as orbital angular momentum (OAM). The nanophotonic device uses ultra-thin sheets to measure a fraction of a millimeter of twisted light. Nano-electronic device is embedded within a connector smaller than the size of a USB connector and may be fitted at the end of an optical fiber cable.[71]
Dispersion
For modern glass optical fiber, the maximum transmission distance is limited not by direct material absorption but by dispersion, the spreading of optical pulses as they travel along the fiber. Dispersion limits the bandwidth of the fiber because the spreading optical pulse limits the rate which pulses can follow one another on the fiber and still be distinguishable at the receiver. Dispersion in optical fibers is caused by a variety of factors.
In single-mode fiber performance is primarily limited by
Some dispersion, notably chromatic dispersion, can be removed by a
Attenuation
Transmission windows
Each effect that contributes to attenuation and dispersion depends on the optical wavelength. There are wavelength bands (or windows) where these effects are weakest, and these are the most favorable for transmission. These windows have been standardized.[73]
Band | Description | Wavelength range |
---|---|---|
O band | Original | 1260–1360 nm |
E band | Extended | 1360–1460 nm |
S band | Short wavelengths | 1460–1530 nm |
C band | Conventional (erbium window) | 1530–1565 nm |
L band | Long wavelengths | 1565–1625 nm |
U band | Ultralong wavelengths | 1625–1675 nm |
Note that this table shows that current technology has managed to bridge the E and S windows that were originally disjoint.
Historically, there was a window of wavelengths shorter than O band, called the first window, at 800–900 nm; however, losses are high in this region so this window is used primarily for short-distance communications. The current lower windows (O and E) around 1300 nm have much lower losses. This region has zero dispersion. The middle windows (S and C) around 1500 nm are the most widely used. This region has the lowest attenuation losses and achieves the longest range. It does have some dispersion, so dispersion compensator devices are used to address this.
Regeneration
When a communications link must span a larger distance than existing fiber-optic technology is capable of, the signal must be regenerated at intermediate points in the link by optical communications repeaters. Repeaters add substantial cost to a communication system, and so system designers attempt to minimize their use.
Recent advances in fiber and optical communications technology have reduced signal degradation to the point that regeneration of the optical signal is only needed over distances of hundreds of kilometers. This has greatly reduced the cost of optical networking, particularly over undersea spans where the cost and reliability of repeaters is one of the key factors determining the performance of the whole cable system. The main advances contributing to these performance improvements are dispersion management, which seeks to balance the effects of dispersion against non-linearity; and solitons, which use nonlinear effects in the fiber to enable dispersion-free propagation over long distances.
Last mile
Although fiber-optic systems excel in high-bandwidth applications, the
In the US,
The globally dominant access network technology is
Comparison with electrical transmission
The choice between optical fiber and electrical (or copper) transmission for a particular system is made based on a number of trade-offs. Optical fiber is generally chosen for systems requiring higher bandwidth or spanning longer distances than electrical cabling can accommodate.
The main benefits of fiber are its exceptionally low loss (allowing long distances between amplifiers/repeaters), its absence of ground currents and other parasite signal and power issues common to long parallel electric conductor runs (due to its reliance on light rather than electricity for transmission, and the dielectric nature of fiber optic), and its inherently high data-carrying capacity. Thousands of electrical links would be required to replace a single high-bandwidth fiber cable. Another benefit of fibers is that even when run alongside each other for long distances, fiber cables experience effectively no crosstalk, in contrast to some types of electrical transmission lines. Fiber can be installed in areas with high electromagnetic interference (EMI), such as alongside utility lines, power lines, and railroad tracks. Nonmetallic all-dielectric cables are also ideal for areas of high lightning-strike incidence.
For comparison, while single-line, voice-grade copper systems longer than a couple of kilometers require in-line signal repeaters for satisfactory performance, it is not unusual for optical systems to go over 100 kilometers (62 mi), with no active or passive processing. Single-mode fiber cables are commonly available in 12 km (7.5 mi) lengths, minimizing the number of splices required over a long cable run. Multi-mode fiber is available in lengths up to 4 km, although industrial standards only mandate 2 km unbroken runs.
In short-distance and relatively low-bandwidth applications, electrical transmission is often preferred because of its
- Lower material cost, where large quantities are not required
- Lower cost of transmitters and receivers
- Capability to carry electrical power as well as signals (in appropriately designed cables)
- Ease of operating transducers in linear mode.
Optical fibers are more difficult and expensive to splice than electrical conductors. And at higher powers, optical fibers are susceptible to fiber fuse, resulting in catastrophic destruction of the fiber core and damage to transmission components.[74]
Because of these benefits of electrical transmission, optical communication is not common in short box-to-box, backplane, or chip-to-chip applications; however, optical systems on those scales have been demonstrated in the laboratory.
In certain situations, fiber may be used even for short-distance or low-bandwidth applications, due to other important features:
- Immunity to electromagnetic interference, including nuclear electromagnetic pulses.
- High electrical resistance, making it safe to use near high-voltage equipment or between areas with different earth potentials.
- Lighter weight—important, for example, in aircraft.
- No sparks—important in flammable or explosive gas environments.[75]
- Not electromagnetically radiating, and difficult to tap without disrupting the signal—important in high-security environments.
- Much smaller cable size—important where the pathway is limited, such as networking an existing building, where smaller channels can be drilled and space can be saved in existing cable ducts and trays.
- Resistance to corrosion due to non-metallic transmission medium
Optical fiber cables can be installed in buildings with the same equipment that is used to install copper and coaxial cables, with some modifications due to the small size and limited pull tension and bend radius of optical cables. Optical cables can typically be installed in duct systems in spans of 6000 meters or more depending on the duct's condition, layout of the duct system, and installation technique. Longer cables can be coiled at an intermediate point and pulled farther into the duct system as necessary.
Governing standards
In order for various manufacturers to be able to develop components that function compatibly in fiber optic communication systems, a number of standards have been developed. The International Telecommunication Union publishes several standards related to the characteristics and performance of fibers themselves, including
- ITU-T G.651, "Characteristics of a 50/125 μm multimode graded index optical fibre cable"
- ITU-T G.652, "Characteristics of a single-mode optical fibre cable"
Other standards specify performance criteria for fiber, transmitters, and receivers to be used together in conforming systems. Some of these standards are:
- 100 Gigabit Ethernet
- 10 Gigabit Ethernet
- Fibre Channel
- Gigabit Ethernet
- HIPPI
- Synchronous Digital Hierarchy
- Synchronous Optical Networking
- Optical transport network (OTN)
See also
- Dark fiber
- Fiber to the x
- Free-space optical communication
Notes
- ^ Communications LEDs are most commonly made from Indium gallium arsenide phosphide (InGaAsP) or gallium arsenide (GaAs). Because InGaAsP LEDs operate at a longer wavelength than GaAs LEDs (1.3 micrometers vs. 0.81–0.87 micrometers), their output spectrum, while equivalent in energy is wider in wavelength terms by a factor of about 1.7.
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- ^ "Record 1.84 Petabit/s Data Transfer Achieved With Photonic Chip, Fibre Optic Cable". Tom's Hardware. 2022-10-20. Retrieved 2022-10-23.
- S2CID 116723996.
- ^ "Groundbreaking new technology could allow 100-times-faster internet by harnessing twisted light beams". Phys.org. 2018-10-24. Retrieved 2018-10-25.
- PMID 30356063.
- ^ Christopher C. Davis. "Fiber Optic Technology and its Role in the Information Revolution".
- ^ Paschotta, Dr Rüdiger. "Optical Fiber Communications". rp-photonics.com.
- Optical Society of America. Archived from the original(PDF) on July 17, 2011. Retrieved March 14, 2010.
- ISBN 9781118019542.
Optical sensors are advantageous in hazardous environments because there are no sparks when a fiber breaks or its cover is worn.
- Encyclopedia of Laser Physics and Technology
- Fiber-Optic Technologies by Vivek Alwayn
- Agrawal, Govind P. (2002). Fiber-optic communication systems. New York: ISBN 978-0-471-21571-4.
Further reading
- Keiser, Gerd. (2011). Optical fiber communications, 4th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, ISBN 9780073380711
- Senior, John. (2008). Optical Fiber Communications: Principles and Practice, 3rd ed. Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0130326812
External links
- "Understanding Optical Communications" An IBM redbook
- Fiber Optics - Internet, Cable and Telephone Communication Archived 2016-10-22 at the Wayback Machine