Ethnic groups in the Philippines

The Philippines is inhabited by more than 182 ethnolinguistic groups,^[1]^: 5 many of which are classified as "Indigenous Peoples" under the country's Indigenous Peoples' Rights Act of 1997. Traditionally-Muslim peoples from the southernmost island group of Mindanao are usually categorized together as Moro peoples, whether they are classified as Indigenous peoples or not. About 142 are classified as non-Muslim Indigenous people groups, and about 19 ethnolinguistic groups are classified as neither Indigenous nor Moro.^[1]^: 6 Various migrant groups have also had a significant presence throughout the country's history.

The

Muslim-majority ethnic groups ethnolinguistic groups of Mindanao, Sulu, and Palawan are collectively referred to as the Moro people,^[2] a broad category that includes some Indigenous people groups and some non-Indigenous people groups.^[1]^: 6 With a population of over 5 million people, they comprise about 5% of the country's total population.^[3]^[4] The Spanish called them Moros after the Moors

, despite no resemblance or cultural ties to them apart from their religion.

About 142 of

autonym conceived in 1986 as a way to distinguish them from their neighboring Indigenous Moro and Visayan neighbors.^[8] Small Indigenous ethnic communities remain marginalized, and often poorer than the rest of society.^[9]

About 86 to 87 percent of the Philippine population belong to the 19 ethnolinguistic groups are classified as neither Indigenous nor Moro.[1]^: 6 These groups are sometimes collectively referred to as "Lowland Christianized groups," to distinguish them from the other ethnolinguistic groups.^[10] The most populous of these groups, with populations exceeding a million individuals, are the Ilocano, the Pangasinense, the Kapampangan, the Tagalog, the Bicolano, and the Visayans (including the Cebuano, the Boholano, the Hiligaynon/Ilonggo, and the Waray).^[1]^: 16 Many of these groups converted to Christianity,^{[citation needed]} particularly both the native and migrant lowland-coastal groups,^[11] and adopted foreign elements of culture throughout the country's history.^{[citation needed]}

Due to the past history of the Philippines since the

bourgeois,^[13] and economy^[13]^[14]^[15]^[16] and were integral to the establishment of the country,^[11] from the rise of Filipino nationalism by the Ilustrado intelligentsia to the Philippine Revolution.^[17] Other peoples of migrant and/or mixed descent include American Filipinos, Indian Filipinos,^[18] and Japanese Filipinos.^[19]

Aside from migrant groups which speak their own languages, most Filipinos speak languages classified under the

Austronesian language family, including the various Negrito peoples of the archipelago, which are genetically and phenotypically distinct from the other ethnic groups of the Philippines.^[20] While these groups have maintained a culture and identity distinct from neighboring ethnic groups, they have long adapted their neighbors' Austronesian languages.^[21] Traditionally subcategorized geographically as the Ati people of Visayas and Mindanao, and the Aeta of Luzon, the Negrito population was estimated at 31,000 as of 2004.^[22]

Origins

Traditional homelands of the **Indigenous peoples of the Philippines**

There are several opposing theories regarding the origins of ancient Filipinos, starting with the "Waves of Migration" hypothesis of H. Otley Beyer in 1948, which claimed that Filipinos were "Indonesians" and "Malays" who migrated to the islands. This is completely rejected by modern anthropologists and is not supported by any evidence, but the hypothesis is still widely taught in Filipino elementary and public schools resulting in the widespread misconception by Filipinos that they are "Malays".^[23]^[24]

Austronesian expansion^[25]

The most widely accepted theory, however, is the

ancestor worship, and the same domesticated plants and animals (including dogs, pigs, chickens, yams, bananas, sugarcane, and coconuts).^[25]^[26]^[28]

Prehistoric

Callao Man.^{[citation needed}

]

The Negritos arrived about 30,000 years ago and occupied several scattered areas throughout the islands. Recent archaeological evidence described by Peter Bellwood claimed that the ancestors of Filipinos, Malaysians, and Indonesians first crossed the Taiwan Strait during the Prehistoric period. These early mariners are thought to be the Austronesian people. They used boats to cross the oceans, and settled into many regions of Southeast Asia, the Polynesian Islands, and Madagascar.^{[citation needed]}

Two early East Asian waves (

last glacial period was coming to an end.^[29]

The first Austronesians reached the Philippines at around 2200 BC, settling the

Arabia also contributed to the ethnic and cultural development of the islands.^[33] Papuan ancestry was also detected among the ethnic Blaan and Sangir people of Mindanao, suggesting that there was westward expansion of peoples from Papua New Guinea into the Philippines. The integration of Southeast Asia into Indian Ocean trading networks around 2,000 years ago also shows some impact, with South Asian genetic signals present within some Sama-Bajau communities.^[29]

By the 16th century,

Filipino mestizo or individuals of mixed Austronesian and Hispanic descent. There was migration of a military nature from Latin-America (Mexico and Peru) to the Philippines, composed of varying races (Amerindian, Mestizo and Criollo) as described by Stephanie J. Mawson in her book "Convicts or Conquistadores? Spanish Soldiers in the Seventeenth-Century Pacific".^[34] Also, in her dissertation paper called, ‘Between Loyalty and Disobedience: The Limits of Spanish Domination in the Seventeenth Century Pacific’, she recorded an accumulated number of 15,600 soldier-settlers sent to the Philippines from Latin-America during the 1600s.^[35] In contrast, there were only 600 Spaniards who immigrated from Europe,^[36] in which timeframe, the total population of the Philippines was only about 667,612.^[37] In the 1600s, Spain deployed thousands of Mexican and Peruvian soldiers across the many cities and presidios of the Philippines.^[38]

Geographic distribution and year of settlement of the Latin-American immigrant soldiers assigned to the Philippines in the 1600s.^[38]
Location	1603	1636	1642	1644	1654	1655	1670	1672
Manila^[38]	900	446	—	407	821	799	708	667
Fort Santiago^[38]	—	22	—	—	50	—	86	81
Cavite^[38]	—	70	—	—	89	—	225	211
Cagayan^[38]	46	80	—	—	—	—	155	155
Calamianes^[38]	—	—	—	—	—	—	73	73
Caraga^[38]	—	45	—	—	—	—	81	81
Cebu^[38]	86	50	—	—	—	—	135	135
Formosa^[38]	—	180	—	—	—	—	—	—
Moluccas^[38]	80	480	507	—	389	—	—	—
Otón^[38]	66	50	—	—	—	—	169	169
Zamboanga^[38]	—	210	—	—	184	—	—	—
Other^[38]	255	—	—	—	—	—	—	—
^[38]	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—
Total Reinforcements^[38]	1,533	1,633	2,067	2,085	n/a	n/a	1,632	1,572

Another 35,000 Mexican immigrants arrived in the 1700s [40]^[39] and they were part of a Philippine population of 1.2 Million, forming about 2.91% of the population.

In the late 1700s to early 1800s, Joaquín Martínez de Zúñiga, an Agustinian Friar, in his Two Volume Book: "Estadismo de las islas Filipinas"^[41]^[42] compiled a census of the Spanish-Philippines based on the tribute counts (Which represented an average family of seven to ten children^[43] and two parents, per tribute)^[44] and came upon the following statistics:

Data reported for the 1800 as divided by ethnicity and province^[41]^[42]
Province	Native Tributes	Spanish Mestizo Tributes	All Tributes^[a]
Tondo^[41]^: 539	14,437-1/2	3,528	27,897-7
Cavite^[41]^: 539	5,724-1/2	859	9,132-4
Laguna^[41]^: 539	14,392-1/2	336	19,448-6
Batangas^[41]^: 539	15,014	451	21,579-7
Mindoro^[41]^: 539	3,165	3-1/2	4,000-8
Bulacan^[41]^: 539	16,586-1/2	2,007	25,760-5
Pampanga^[41]^: 539	16,604-1/2	2,641	27,358-1
Bataan^[41]^: 539	3,082	619	5,433
Zambales^[41]^: 539	1,136	73	4,389
Ilocos^[42] ^: 31	44,852-1/2	631	68,856
Pangasinan^[42]^: 31	19,836	719-1/2	25,366
Cagayan^[42]^: 31	9,888	0	11,244-6
Camarines^[42] ^: 54	19,686-1/2	154-1/2	24,994
Albay^[42]^: 54	12,339	146	16,093
Tayabas^[42]^: 54	7,396	12	9,228
Cebu^[42]^: 113	28,112-1/2	625	28,863
Samar^[42]^: 113	3,042	103	4,060
Leyte^[42]^: 113	7,678	37-1/2	10,011
Caraga^[42]^: 113	3,497	0	4,977
Misamis^[42]^: 113	1,278	0	1,674
Negros Island^[42] ^: 113	5,741	0	7,176
Iloilo^[42]^: 113	29,723	166	37,760
Capiz^[42]^: 113	11,459	89	14,867
Antique^[42]^: 113	9,228	0	11,620
Calamianes^[42] ^: 113	2,289	0	3,161
TOTAL	299,049	13,201	424,992-16

The Spanish-Filipino population as a proportion of the provinces widely varied; with as high as 19% of the population of Tondo province ^[41]^: 539 (The most populous province and former name of Manila), to Pampanga 13.7%,^[41]^: 539 Cavite at 13%,^[41]^: 539 Laguna 2.28%,^[41]^: 539 Batangas 3%,^[41]^: 539 Bulacan 10.79%,^[41]^: 539 Bataan 16.72%,^[41]^: 539 Ilocos 1.38%,^[42]^: 31 Pangasinan 3.49%,^[42]^: 31 Albay 1.16%,^[42]^: 54 Cebu 2.17%,^[42]^: 113 Samar 3.27%,^[42]^: 113 Iloilo 1%,

Bicol 20%,^[45] and Zamboanga 40%.^[45]

The current modern-day Chinese Filipinos are mostly the descendants of immigrants from

Southern Fujian in China from the 20th century and late 19th century, possibly numbering around 2 million, although there are an estimated 27 percent of Filipinos who have partial Chinese ancestry,^[46]^[47]^[48] stemming from precolonial and colonial Chinese (Sangley) migrants from the past centuries especially during the Spanish Colonial Era.^[49] Intermarriage between the groups is evident in the major cities and urban areas,^[50] and spans back to Spanish colonial times, where a colonial middle-class group known as the Mestizo de Sangley (Chinese mestizos) descend from.^[51] Its descendants during the late 19th century produced a major part of the ilustrado intelligentsia of the late Spanish Colonial Philippines, that were very influential with the creation of Filipino nationalism and the sparking of the Philippine Revolution.^[11]

There are also

Japanese settlement in the Philippines.^[52] In the 16th and 17th centuries, thousands of Japanese people traders also migrated to the Philippines and assimilated into the local population.^[53]

The Philippines was a

Amerasians scattered across the cities of Angeles City, Manila, and Olongapo.^[56]

Practicing

Latin American, and/or Spanish-Malay Mestizo) is at 12.7%, Indigenous American (Native American) at 7.3%, African at 4.5%, and European at 2.7%.^[58]

In 2013, according to the Senate of the Philippines, there were approximately 1.35 million ethnic (or pure) Chinese within the Philippine population, while Filipinos with any Chinese descent comprised 22.8 million of the population.^[12]

Genetics

The results of a massive DNA study conducted by the

National Geographic's "The Genographic Project", based on genetic testings of 80,000 Filipino people by the National Geographic in 2008–2009, found that the average Filipino's genes are around 53% Southeast Asian and Oceanian, 36% East Asian, 5% Southern European, 3% South Asian and 2% Native American.^[59]

Moro ethnolinguistic groups

The collective term

Tausug. The Sultanate of Sulu once exercised sovereignty over the present day provinces of Basilan, Palawan, Sulu, Tawi-Tawi, the eastern part of the Malaysian state of Sabah (formerly North Borneo) and North Kalimantan

in Indonesia.

Molbog

The Molbog (referred to in the literature as Molebugan or Molebuganon) are concentrated in southern Palawan, around Balabac, Bataraza, and are also found in other islands of the coast of Palawan as far north as Panakan. They are the only indigenous people in Palawan where the majority of its people are Muslims. The area constitutes the homeland of the Molbog people since the classical era prior to Spanish colonization. The Molbog are known to have a strong connection with the natural world, especially with the sacred pilandok (Philippine mouse-deer), which can only be found in the Balabac islands. The coconut is especially important in Molbog culture at it is their most prized agricultural crop. The word Malubog means "murky or turbid water". The Molbog are likely a migrant people from nearby Sabah, North Borneo. Based on their dialect and some socio-cultural practices, they seem to be related to the Orang Tidung or Tirum (Camucone in Spanish), an Islamized ethnolinguistic group native to the lower east coast of Sabah and upper East Kalimantan. They speak the Molbog language, which is related to Bonggi, spoken in Sabah, Malaysia. However, some Sama words (of the Jama Mapun variant) and Tausug words are found in the Molbog dialect after a long period of exposure with those ethnics. This plus a few characteristics of their socio-cultural life style distinguish them from the Orang Tidung. Molbog livelihood includes subsistence farming, fishing and occasional barter trading with the Moros and neighbouring ethnolinguistic groups in Sabah. In the past, both the Molbog and the Palawanon Muslims were ruled by Sulu datus, thus forming the outer political periphery of the Sulu Sultanate. Intermarriage between Tausug and the Molbog hastened the Islamization of the Molbog. The offsprings of these intermarriages are known as kolibugan or "half-breed".

Kolibugan Subanon

The

Sibuco (1,520) (NSO 1980). The total population count is estimated at 32,227 (NM 1994). The generalized culture is lowland central Philippines focused on wet rice cultivation, and some localized swidden cultivation. Adaptation to the marine environment is made, but mostly in terms of domestic fishing.^[60]

Maranao

The

Zamboangueño

.

Iranun/Ilanun

The

Malabang. Both of which were the strongholds of the Iranun society. Iranuns fought the Western invaders under the flag of the Maguindanao Sultanate. They formed part of the Moro resistance against the US occupation of the Philippines from 1899 to 1913. The Iranun were excellent in maritime activity as they are traditionally sailors and pirates. They used to ply the route connecting the Sulu Sea, Moro Gulf to Celebes Sea, and raided the Spanish

held territories along the way.

Maguindanaon

The

liturgical language of Islam. Some also speak Chabacano, which is a Philippine Spanish Creole that gained popularity as a major language during the Spanish rule and during the short-lived Republic of Zamboanga, most specifically Cotabateño dialect, spoken in Cotabato City

.

Sangil/Sangirese

The

North Cotabato, South Cotabato, General Santos and Davao City,^[61]^[62]

because of its proximity to Indonesia; they speak Cebuano & Tagalog as second languages & are Protestant Christians by faith.

Yakan

The

Chabacano, which is the lingua franca of Basilan, the reason of easier adaptation to the society of Zamboanga City. Because of the mass influx of Cebuano migrants to Mindanao, many of the Yakans also tend to be exposed to the Cebuano language from Visayas easily enough to be able to speak it. The Yakan have a traditional horse culture

. They are renowned for their weaving traditions.

Tausug

The

Malaysian state of Sabah (formerly North Borneo) and North Kalimantan in Indonesia. "Tausug" means "the people of the current", from the word tau which means "man" or "people" and sūg (alternatively spelled sulug or suluk) which means "[sea] currents". This refers to their homelands in the Sulu Archipelago. The Tausūg in Sabah refer to themselves as Tausūg but refers to their ethnic group as "Suluk" as documented in official documents such as birth certificates in Sabah, which are written Malay. Because of the mass arrival of Cebuano settlers to Mindanao, many Tausug people are exposed in the Cebuano language easily enough to be able to speak it as Tausug & Cebuano languages belong to Visayan languages. Some Tausug in Sulu & Tawi-Tawi speak Chabacano, specifically the Zamboanga dialect; most of those fluent in Chabacano are residents of Basilan & Zamboanga City. Most Tausug in Sabah and North Kalimantan & some Tausug in Sulu Archipeago & south Palawan speak Sabah Malay

.

Jama Mapun

The

Mapun, Tawi-Tawi (formerly known as Cagayan de Sulu). Their culture is heavily influenced by the Sulu Sultanate

. They are relatively isolated and do not usually consider themselves as Sama.

Banguingui

Sama-Bajau peoples

.

Sama Dea (Samal/Sama)

The

Island Garden City of Samal was possibly named after them. A 2021 genetic study show how the Sama has common ancestry with the Austroasiatic Mlabri and Htin peoples of mainland Southeast Asia.^[63]

Sama Bihing/Sama Lipid

The

littoral Sama". These are the Sama-Bajau which traditionally lived in stilt houses in shallows and coastal areas. An example is the Sama Simunul. They are originally from the larger islands of Tawi-Tawi

. They have a more flexible lifestyle than the Sama-Gimba (Sama Dilaut Origin), and will farm when there is available land. They usually act as middlemen in trade between the Sama Dilaut and other land-based peoples.

Sama Dilaut (Bajau)

The

Bongao. They sometimes call themselves the "Sama To'ongan" (literally "true Sama" or "real Sama"), to distinguish themselves from the land-dwelling Sama-Bajau subgroups. They are also found in other islands of the Sulu Archipelago, coastal areas of Mindanao, northern and eastern Borneo, Sulawesi, and throughout eastern Indonesian islands. Within the last fifty years, many of the Filipino Sama-Bajau have migrated to neighbouring Malaysia and the northern islands of the Philippines, due to the conflict in Mindanao. A genetic study published in PNAS show that the Dilaut people of the Philippines have South Asian or Indian descent.^[63] As of 2010, they were the second-largest ethnic group in the Malaysian state of Sabah

. Sama-Bajau have sometimes been called the "Sea Gypsies" or "Sea Nomads". They usually live a seaborne lifestyle, and use small wooden sailing vessels such as the

perahu (layag in Meranau), djenging, balutu, lepa, pilang, and vinta

(or lepa-lepa).

Non-Moro indigenous peoples

There are more than 100 highland, lowland, and coastland indigenous groups in the Philippines. These include:

Igorot

The

Igorots/Cordillerans live in the highlands of Luzon. They are primarily located in the Cordillera Administrative Region, Caraballo Mountains, and Sierra Madre.^[64]

Isnag

The

Ilokano

. Two major sub-groups among the Isnag are known: the Ymandaya, mostly concentrated in the municipality of

Calanasan; and the Imallod, with populations distributed among the other towns of the province. Isnag populations can also be found in the eastern part of the adjacent provinces of Ilocos Norte and Cagayan

.

Tinguian/Itneg

The

South-Central Cordilleran dialect

. They have an indigenous Itneg religion with its own pantheon.

Kalinga

The

Kalinga Province

. The Kalinga are sub-divided into Southern and Northern groups; the latter is considered the most heavily ornamented people of the northern Philippines. The Kalinga practice both wet and dry rice farming. They also developed an institution of peace pacts called Bodong which has minimised traditional warfare and headhunting and serves as a mechanism for the initiation, maintenance, renewal and reinforcement of kinship and social ties. They also speak different Kalinga tribal languages, Ilocano, Tagalog and English.

Balangao

The

Kalinga Province

.

Bontoc

The Bontoc live on the banks of the Chico River in the Central Mountain Province on the island of Luzon. They speak Bontoc and Ilocano. They formerly practiced head-hunting and had distinctive body tattoos. Present-day Bontocs are a peaceful agricultural people who have, by choice, retained most of their traditional culture despite frequent contacts with other groups. The Bontoc social structure used to be centered around village wards (ato) containing about 14 to 50 homes. Traditionally, young men and women lived in dormitories and ate meals with their families. This gradually changed with the advent of Christianity. In general, however, it can be said that all Bontocs are very aware of their own way of life and are not overly eager to change.

Ifugao

The

hudhud and the alim, which were chosen as one of the 11 Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity

. It was then formally inscribed as a UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage in 2008.

Kankanaey

The Kankanaey domain includes Western Mountain Province, northern Benguet and southeastern Ilocos Sur. Like most Igorot ethnic groups, the Kankanaey built sloping terraces to maximize farm space in the rugged terrain of the Cordilleras. They speak the Kankanaey language. The only difference amongst the Kankanaey are the way they speak such as intonation and word usage. In intonation, there is distinction between those who speak Hard Kankanaey (Applai) and Soft Kankanaey. Speakers of Hard Kankanaey are from the towns of Sagada and Besao in the western Mountain Province as well as their environs. They speak Kankanaey with a hard intonation where they differ in some words from the soft-speaking Kankanaey. Soft-speaking Kankanaey come from Northern and other parts of Benguet, and from the municipalities of Sabangan, Tadian and Bauko in Mountain Province. They also differ in their ways of life and sometimes in culture.

Kalanguya

The

Buguias call themselves Kalangoya. Those who reside in Nueva Vizcaya and Quirino call themselves Ikalahans. In the past this ethnolinguistic group was known as Kalanggutan, Keley'I, Mandek'ey, Yatukka, or Kalangoya. The Kalanguya are considered a subgroup of the Ifugao people

.

Karao

The

Ifugao Province. The language is named after the barangay of Karaw in Bokod municipality, Benguet.^[65]

Iwak

The Iwak people (Oak, Iguat, Iwaak, etc.) is a small ethnic group, which has a population of approximately 3,000, dispersed in small fenced-in villages which are usually enclaves in communities of surrounding major ethnic groups like the Ibaloy and Ikalahan. The characteristic village enclosing fences are sometimes composed in part of the houses with the front entry facing inward. Pig sties are part of the residential architecture. The Iwak are found principally in the municipalities of Boyasyas and Kayapa, province of Nueva Vizcaya. The subgroups are: (1) Lallang ni I’Wak, (2) Ibomanggi, (3) Italiti, (4) Alagot, (5) Itangdalan, (6) Ialsas, (7) Iliaban, (8)Yumanggi, (9) Ayahas, and (10) Idangatan.^[66] They speak the Iwaak language, which is a Pangasinic language which makes it closely related to Pangasinense.

Isinai

The

Itneg or Ifugao and Kankanaey.^[67]

Ibaloi

The Ibaloi (Ibaloi: ivadoy, /ivaˈdoj/) are an indigenous ethnic group found in Benguet Province of the northern Philippines. The native language is Ibaloi, also known as Inibaloi or Nabaloi. Ibaloi is derived from i-, a prefix signifying "pertaining to" and badoy or house, together then meaning "people who live in houses". The Ibaloi (also Ibaloy and Nabaloi) and Kalanguya (also Kallahan and Ikalahan) are one of the indigenous peoples of the Philippines who live mostly in the southern part of Benguet, located in the Cordillera of northern Luzon, and Nueva Vizcaya in the Cagayan Valley region. They were traditionally an agrarian society. Many of the Ibaloi and Kalanguya people continue with their agriculture and rice cultivation. The Ibaloi language is closely related to the Pangasinan language, primarily spoken in the province of Pangasinan, located southwest of Benguet.

Ilongot

The

language

is "Bugkalot". They are known as a tribe of headhunters. Presently, there are about 87,000 Ilongots. The Ilongots tend to inhabit areas close to rivers, as they provide a food source and a means for transportation. Their native language is the

Ilongot language, currently spoken by about 50,000 people. They also speak the Ilocano & Tagalog languages

, the latter is spoken in Nueva Ecija & Aurora as much as Ilocano.

Mangyan

Mangyan is the generic name for the eight indigenous groups found on the island of Mindoro, southwest of the island of Luzon in the Philippines, each with its own tribal name, language, and customs. They occupy nearly the whole of the interior of the island of Mindoro. The total population may be around 280,000, but official statistics are difficult to determine under the conditions of remote areas, reclusive tribal groups and some having little if any outside world contact. They also speak Tagalog as their second language because of arrival of Tagalog settlers from Batangas.^[68]

Iraya

The Iraya are Mangyans that live in municipalities in northern Mindoro, such as Paluan, Abra de Ilog, northern Mamburao, and Santa Cruz municipalities in Occidental Mindoro, and Puerto Galera and San Teodoro municipalities in Oriental Mindoro. They have also been found in Calamintao, on the northeastern boundary of Santa Cruz municipality (7 km up the Pagbahan River from the provincial highway). They speak the Iraya language which is part of the North Mangyan group of Malayo-Polynesian languages, though it shows considerable differences to Tadyawan and Alangan, the other languages in this group. There are 6,000 to 8,000 Iraya speakers, and that number is growing. The language status of Iraya is developing, meaning that this language is being put to use in a strong and healthy manner by its speakers, and it also has its own writing system (though not yet completely common nor maintainable).

Alangan

The

Sablayan, Occidental Mindoro

.

Tadyawan

Lake Naujan in Oriental Mindoro. They can be found in Barrio Talapaan, Socorro, Oriental Mindoro; Happy Valley, Socorro, Oriental Mindoro; and Pahilaan, Calatagan, Pola, Oriental Mindoro. They speak the Tadyawan language, which has 4 dialects, namely Nauhan, East Aglubang, West Aglubang, and Pola. Nauhan and East Aglubang are close to each other. The West Aglubang is spoken farthest out and has strong Alangan

influence.

Tawbuid

The Tau-build (or Tawbuid) Mangyans live in central Mindoro. They speak the Tawbuid language, which is divided into eastern and western dialects. The Bangon Mangyans also speak the western dialect of Tawbuid. In Oriental Mindoro, Eastern Tawbuid (also known as Bangon) is spoken by 1,130 people in the municipalities of Socorro, Pinamalayan, and Gloria.

In Occidental Mindoro, Western Tawbuid (also known as Batangan) is spoken by 6,810 people in the municipalities of Sablayan and Calintaan.

Bangon

The Mangyan group known on the east of Mindoro as Bangon may be a subgroup of Tawbuid, as they speak the 'western' dialect of that language. They also have a kind of poetry which is called the Ambahan.

Buhid

The

Mansalay, Oriental Mindoro. They speak the Buhid language in the island of Mindoro, Philippines. It is divided into eastern and western dialects and uses its own unique Buhid script, which is encoded in the Unicode-Block Buhid (Buid) (1740–175F)

.

Hanunoo

Hanunuo script, which is encoded in the Unicode-Block Hanunoo (1720–173F)

.

Ratagnon

Ratagnon (also transliterated Datagnon or Latagnon) are mangyans of the southernmost tip of Occidental Mindoro in the Mindoro Islands along the Sulu Sea. They live in the southernmost part of the municipality of Magsaysay in Occidental Mindoro. The Ratagnon language is similar to the Visayan Cuyunon language, spoken by the inhabitants of Cuyo Island in Northern Palawan. The Ratagnon women wear a wrap-around cotton cloth from the waistline to the knees and some of the males still wear the traditional g-string. The women's breast covering is made of woven nito (vine). They also wear accessories made of beads and copper wire. The males wear a jacket with simple embroidery during gala festivities and carry flint, tinder, and other paraphernalia for making fire. Both sexes wear coils of red-dyed rattan at the waistline. Like other Mangyan tribes, they also carry betel chew and its ingredients in bamboo containers. Today only around 2 to 5 people speak the Ratagnon language, which is nearly extinct, out of an ethnic population of 2,000 people, since speakers are shifting to Tagalog. They appear to also have intermarried with lowlanders.

Tribal Palaweño

The indigenous peoples of Palawan are a diverse group of both indigenous tribes and lowland groups that historically migrated to the island of Palawan and its outlying islands. These ethnolinguistic groups are widely distributed to the long strip of mainland island literally traversing Luzon, Visayas and Mindanao. Listed below are specifically the tribal groups of Palawan, as opposed to its urban lowland groups that historically settled its cities and towns. Palawan is home to many indigenous peoples whose origins date back thousands of centuries. Pre-historic discoveries reveal how abundant cultural life in Palawan survived before foreign occupiers and colonizers reached the Philippine archipelago. Today, Palawan is making its best to preserve and conserve the richness of its cultural groups. The provincial government strives to support the groups of indigenous peoples of Palawan.

Tagbanwa

The

kaingin

and common belief in soul-relatives are part of their culture. This group are excellent in basketry and wood carving. They are also famous for their beautifully crafted body accessories. Their combs, bracelets, necklaces and anklets are usually made of wood, beads, brass and copper. The Central Tagbanwa language is dying out as the younger generations are learning Cuyonon and Tagalog.

Palawano

The

Molbog and Palawani neighbors. A small number of them are Protestant due to recent missionary

campaigns.

Taaw't Bato

The

almaciga, rattan, etc. This tribe subsists on hunting, gathering fruits and planting crops and rice near the forest. Because of their uniqueness, the Philippine government

declared their area off limits to strangers to protect them from unreasonable exploitation.

Suludnon

The Suludnon are highland

Kinaray-a, Aklanon, and Hiligaynon of Panay Island, Visayas

.

Suludnon/Sulod/Tumandok

The

West Visayan subdivision of the Visayan languages under the Austronesian language family. They are the largest indigenous people's group in Panay, with a population of some 94,000 as of 2011. They are mostly slash-and-burn farmers with bisaya rice as the main crop. The Tumandok also engage in hunting, fishing, and foraging for fruits and root crops.^[69]

Negrito

The Negrito are several Australo-Melanesian groups who inhabit isolated parts of Southeast Asia.^[70] They all live in remote areas throughout the islands in the Philippines.

Aeta/Agta

The

derogatory by fellow Aeta of northern Luzon. The Aeta speak Sambalic languages, which are part of the Central Luzon

family.

Batak

The

Southern Tagbanwa, Central Tagbanwa, Kuyonon, and Agutaynen

.

Ati

The

Visayan language known as Inati. As of 1980, the speakers of Inati number about 1,500. Hiligaynon and Kinaray-a

are also commonly used.

Mamanwa

The

Kitcharao and Santiago, Agusan del Norte, though they are lesser in number and more scattered and nomadic than the Manobos and Mandaya tribes who also inhabit the region. Like all Negritos, the Mamanwas are phenotypically distinct from the lowlanders and the upland living Manobos, exhibiting curly hair and much darker skin tones. These peoples are traditionally hunter-gatherers and consume a wide variety of wild plants, herbs, insects, and animals from tropical rainforest. Currently, Mamanwa populations live in sedentary settlements ("barangays") that are close to agricultural peoples and market centers. As a result, a substantial proportion of their diet includes starch-dense domesticated foods. The Mamanwa have been exposed to many of the modernities mainstream agricultural populations possess and use such as cell phones, televisions, radio, processed foods, etc. Their contact with monotheist communities/populations has made a considerable impact on the Mamanwa's religious practices. The tribe produce excellent winnowing baskets, rattan hammocks, and other household containers. Mamanwa (also spelled Mamanoa) means 'first forest dwellers', from the words man (first) and banwa (forest). They speak the Mamanwa language (or Minamanwa). They are genetically related to the Denisovans

.

Lumad

The

Austronesian peoples of Mindanao. They include several ethnolinguistic groups such as the Manobo, the Tasaday, the Mamanwa, the Mandaya, the B'laan, the T'boli, and the Kalagan. They primarily inhabit the eastern parts of Mindanao such as the Caraga, and Davao Regions

.

Subanon

Subanon language. Some also speak Chavacano Zamboangueño and Cebuano

.

As the name implies, these people originally lived along riverbanks in the lowlands, however due to disturbances and competitions from related groups such as the

Bisaya, these peace-loving people are now found residing in the mountains.^[72]

The Subanons regularly move from one location to another to clear more forest for fields. They cultivate crops, with rice as the most important crop, but they are also known to raise livestock including pigs, chickens, cattle, and water buffaloes. Subanon houses are built along hillsides and ridges overlooking family fields. The homes are usually rectangular and raised on stilts with thatched roofs.

Mamanwa

The

Kitcharao and Santiago, Agusan del Norte, though they are lesser in number and more scattered and nomadic than the Manobos and Mandaya tribes who also inhabit the region. Like all Negritos, the Mamanwas are phenotypically distinct from the lowlanders and the upland living Manobos, exhibiting curly hair and much darker skin tones. These peoples are traditionally hunter-gatherers and consume a wide variety of wild plants, herbs, insects, and animals from tropical rainforest. Currently, Mamanwa populations live in sedentary settlements ("barangays") that are close to agricultural peoples and market centers. As a result, a substantial proportion of their diet includes starch-dense domesticated foods. The Mamanwa have been exposed to many of the modernities mainstream agricultural populations possess and use such as cell phones, televisions, radio, processed foods, etc. Their contact with monotheist communities/populations has made a considerable impact on the Mamanwa's religious practices. The tribe produce excellent winnowing baskets, rattan hammocks, and other household containers. Mamanwa (also spelled Mamanoa) means 'first forest dwellers', from the words man (first) and banwa (forest). They speak the Mamanwa language

(or Minamanwa). They are genetically related to the Denisovans.

Manobo/Banobo

The

Denisovans, much like the Mamanwa. They speak the Manobo languages. A 2021 genetic study show that Manobos have ancestral affinity with the Austroasiatic Mlabri and Htin peoples of mainland Southeast Asia.^[63]

Higaonon

The

Iligan City, and Lanao del Norte

. The Higaonons have a rather traditional way of living. Farming is the most important economic activity. The word Higaonon is derived from the word "Higad" in the Higaonon dialect which means coastal plains and "Gaon" meaning ascend to the mountains. Taken together, Higaonon, means the people of the coastal plains that ascended to the mountains. Higaonons were formerly coastal people of the provinces as mentioned who resisted the Spanish occupation. Driven to the hills and mountains these people continued to exist and fought for the preservation of the people, heritage and culture. They speak the

Binukid

.

Bukidnon

The

Bukidnon Lumad people are one of the seven tribes in the Bukidnon plateau of Mindanao. Bukidnon means 'that of the mountains or highlands' (i.e., 'people of the mountains or highlands'), despite the fact that most Bukidnon tribes settle in the lowlands. They speak the Bukid language, also called Binukid or Bukidnon. It is a de facto co-official language in Bukidnon province, where it is referred to as Higaonon. There are many dialects but there is mutual intelligibility. The dialect of Malaybalay, in the Pulangi area, is considered to be the prestige and standard

variety. The Bukidnon people believe in one god, Magbabaya (Ruler of All), though there are several minor gods and goddesses that they worship as well. Religious rites are presided by a baylan whose ordination is voluntary and may come from any sex. The Bukidnons have rich musical and oral traditions which are celebrated annually in Malaybalay city's Kaamulan Festival, with other tribes in Bukidnon (the Manobo tribes, the Higaonon, Matigsalug, Talaandig, Umayamnom, and the Tigwahanon).

The Bukidnon Lumad is distinct and should not be confused with a few indigenous peoples scattered in the Visayas area who are also alternatively called Bukidnon.

Talaandig

Talaandig language, which is a dialect of Bukid language

.

Umayamnon

The

Umayamnon are originally from the Umayam River watershed and the headwaters of the Pulangi River. They reside in Bukidnon and are a subgroup of the Manobo

.

Tigwahonon

The

Tigwa, which is a dialect of Matigsalug

.

Matigsalug

The

Salug Valley in San Fernando in Bukidnon province, Philippines. "Matigsalug" is a term, which means "people along the Salug River (a tributary of the Davao River)". Although often classified under the Manobo ethnolinguistic group, the Matigsalug is a distinct sub-group of indigenous peoples from the Manobos. The Matigsalug of Bukidnon have an approximate population of 146,500. They speak the Matigsalug language, which is a Manobo language

.

Manguwangan

The

Mangguangan language, which is an Agusan Manobo language

.

Kamayo

The

Lingig has a distinct version spoken.^[74]

Kalagan

The

Tagakaolo language but have increasingly incorporated some Tausug and Maguindanaon words. They are renowned as agriculturalists, cultivating rice, corn, abaca, and coconut for cash crops, whereas their counterparts living along the coast, practice fishing. Some also know Cebuano, Filipino(Tagalog), English, and Arabic.^[75]

Mansaka

The term "

Maragusan, the Hijo River Valley, and the seacoasts of Kingking, Maco, Kwambog, Hijo, Tagum, Libuganon, Tuganay, Ising, and Panabo. They speak the Mansaka language, which may be intelligible with Mandaya

.

Mandaya

"

Compostela Valley (formerly a part of Davao del Norte Province). They speak the Mandaya language, which may be intelligible with Mansaka

.

Giangan

The

Giangan languages of the South Mindanao or Bilic languages. The Lipadas River separated the traditional Tagabawa and Clata territories, while the Talomo River (Ikawayanlinan) was the boundary separating the Tagabawas, Clatas, and Obos. The Davao River

separated the traditional Bagobo and Clata territories.

Tagabawa

Tagabawa or Bagobo-Tagabawa are an indigenous tribe in Mindanao. They speak the Tagabawa language, which is a Manobo language, and live in Cotabato, Davao del Sur, and in the surrounding areas of Mt. Apo by Davao City. They have a culture of high respect towards Philippine eagles, known in their language as banog.

Teduray

The

Bagobo, B'laan, and T'boli. Coastal Tirurays are mostly farmers, hunters, fishermen, and basket weavers; those living in the mountains engage in dry field agriculture, supplemented by hunting and the gathering of forest products. Tirurays are famous for their craftsmanship in weaving baskets with two-toned geometric designs. While many have adopted the cultures of neighboring Muslims and Christians people, a high percentage of their population still believe and practice their indigenous customs and rituals.^[76]

Tagakaulo

Tagakaulo language, which is a part of the Kalagan languages

.

Tasaday

The

Tasaday language is distinct from that of neighbouring tribes, and linguists believe it probably split from the adjacent Manobo languages 200 years ago. Some also know Cebuano and Tagalog

.

B'laan

Koronadal, South Cotabato

The

Southern Mindanao in the Philippines. Their name could have derived from "bla" meaning "opponent" and the suffix "an" meaning "people". Other terms used to refer to this group are Blaan, Bira-an, Baraan, Vilanes, and Bilanes. Some Blaan natives were displaced when General Santos

was founded in 1939. Others settled in the city. They speak the

Marbel, which is another name for the poblacion, is a Blaan term Malb-el which means "murky waters" referring to a river, now called Marbel River

.

The tribe practices indigenous rituals while adapting to the way of life of modern Filipinos. Some also speak

Papuan admixture.^[63]

T'boli

The

Maasim and Kiamba. In former times, the Tbolis also inhabited the upper Alah Valley floor. They speak the Tboli language, some also know Cebuano, Hiligaynon, and Tagalog

.

Sangil

The

North Cotabato, South Cotabato, General Santos and Davao City, ^[61]^[62] because of its proximity to Indonesia; they speak Cebuano & Tagalog as second languages & are Protestant Christians by faith. The exact population of Sangil people in the Philippines is unknown, but is estimated to be around 10,000 people. A study by Larena puyblished in PNAS show that the Sangirese people also possess Papuan admixture.^[63]

Other ethnolinguistic groups

About 86 to 87 percent of the Philippine population belong to the ethnolinguistic groups are classified as neither indigenous nor Moro.[1]^: 6 These groups are sometimes collectively referred to as "Lowland Christianized groups", to distinguish them from indigenous ("upland") groups and Moro peoples.^[10]

Groups in mainland Luzon

Ivatan

The

Yami/Tao people of Orchid Island under jurisdiction of Taiwan. They speak Ivatan language

, & also Ilocano as second language.

Ilocano

The

epic poem with similarities with the Ramayana

.

Bago

The Bago (Bago Igorot) were identified first in the municipality of Pugo in the southeastern side of La Union. This is a highly acculturated group whose villages are along major transportation routes between the lowlands and the Abatan, Benguet markets in the highland. The major ritual practices and beliefs are somewhat related to the northern Kankanay, thus the idea that the people were migrants because of trade from western Mountain Province. The Kankanay regard them as such and not as a specific ethnic group. The language is a mixture of northern Kankanay with an infusion of lowland dialects. Most of the individuals are bilingual with Ilocano as the trade language. Their agricultural activities revolve around a mixture of highland root crops like sweet potatoes, yams, and taro, and lowland vegetables and fruits.^[80]

Ibanag

The

northern Luzon. They speak the Ibanag language, which is distantly related to Ilocano

, which they speak as second language.

Itawes/Itawis/Itawit

The Itawes/Itawis/Itawit are among the earliest inhabitants of the Cagayan Valley in northern Luzon. Their name is derived from the Itawes prefix i- meaning "people of" and tawid or "across the river". As well as their own Itawis language, they speak Ibanag and Ilocano. The contemporary Itawes are charming, friendly, and sociable. They are not very different from other lowland Christianized Filipino ethnic groups in terms of livelihood, housing, and traditions. Their traditional dresses are colorful with red being the dominant color. Farming is a leading source of livelihood. The average families are education-conscious.

Malaweg

The Malaweg are located in sections of Cagayan Valley and Kalinga-Apayao provinces and in the town of Rizal. Their main crops are lowland rice and corn. Tobacco was raised as a cash crop on a foothill west of Piat on the Matalag river near the southeast border of Kalinga-Apayao province, drawing Ibanags from the east. Culturally, they are similar to the neighbor groups: Ibanag and Itawis. Linguistically, they speak a dialect of Itawis.^[81]

Gaddang

The

Kalinga Province, and Mountain Province

.

Ga'dang

The

Kalinga Province. They speak the Ga'dang language, which is closely related to the nearby Gaddang language as part of the Cagayan-Baliwon Gaddang family, and is usually included as a dialect of Gaddang. While they exhibit many cultural traits of their Cordilleran

neighbors, their farming practices tie them to the historic peoples of the lowlands.

Yogad

The

Angadanan, Santiago, and Jones, Isabela. Yogads speak the Yogad language, which is one of the five recognized dialects of Gaddang, and are identified as part of the Christianized Kalingas in western Isabela.^[82]

Bolinao

The

Bolinao and Anda, Pangasinan. They speak the Bolinao language or Binubolinao, which is the second most widely spoken Sambalic language in Pangasinan (after Sambal), & is related to Kapampangan. The language, which has more than 50,000 speakers, has been influenced by Pangasinense, Tagalog, Spanish, and English. The residents can also speak Tagalog, Pangasinense, Ilocano, and often, English as well.^[83]

Pangasinan

The Pangasinense people are the eighth-largest ethnolinguistic group in the Philippines. They predominate in the northwestern portion of Central Luzon (central and east Pangasinan, northern Tarlac, northern Nueva Ecija and northern Zambales), as well as southern parts of La Union and Benguet. They are predominantly Christian (mainly Roman Catholic). They primarily use the Pangasinan language, which is spoken by more than 1.2 million individuals, & mostly speak Ilocano as second language.

Sambal

The

Bolinao and Anda in northwestern Pangasinan, which were under jurisdiction of Zambales. Sambals currently make up a large proportion of the population in the Zambales municipalities of north of Iba, the provincial capital. Their language, Sambal, is related to Kapampangan

. They even speak Tagalog, Ilocano, Pangasinan, & Kapampangan as second languages.

Kapampangan

The

Limahon. They also helped in battles against the Dutch, the English and Muslim raiders.^[84]^: 3 Kapampangans, along with the Tagalogs, played a major role in the Philippine Revolution.^[85]

Kasiguranin

The Kasiguranin live in Casiguran in Aurora Province. The Kasiguranin language descends from an early Tagalog dialect that had borrowed heavily from Northeastern Luzon Agta languages such as Paranan, and Filipino migrant languages like Ilocano, Visayan languages, Bikol languages, and Kapampangan. It is 82% mutually intelligible with Paranan, a language in eastern Isabela, since Aurora and Isabela lie in close proximity. Kasiguranin speak Ilocano & Tagalog as additional languages. They rely mainly on fishing and farming, as do other groups in Casiguran.^[86]

Paranan

The Paranan or Palanan are a group that is largely concentrated on the Pacific side of the province of Isabela about Palanan Bay. The population areas are in Palanan (9,933) with a total population of some 10,925 (NSO 1980). This is probably the northeasternmost extension of the Tagalog language. There is, however, a considerable mixture with the culture of the Negrito from the Paranan Agta language.^[87] Paranan speak Ilocano & Tagalog as additional languages.

Tagalog

The Tagalogs are the most widespread ethnic group in the Philippines. They predominate the entirety of the Manila and mainland southern Luzon regions, with a plurality in Central Luzon (mainly in its southeastern portion [Nueva Ecija, Aurora, and Bulacan], as well as parts of Zambales and Bataan provinces except Pampanga and Tarlac), the entirety of Marinduque and coastal parts of Mindoro.^[88]^[89]^[68] The Tagalog language was chosen as an official language of the Philippines in 1935. Today, Filipino, a de facto version of Tagalog, is taught throughout the archipelago.^[90] As of the 2019 census^[update], there were about 22.5 million speakers of Tagalog in the Philippines, 23.8 million worldwide.^[91] Tagalogs even speak other languages within the environment of other ethnic groups in areas they settled and grew up in, like Ilocano, Pangasinan, and Kapampangan (in Central Luzon).

Caviteño

Spaniards, both peninsulares and insulares, to use the creole in their negotiations with the townfolk. Cavite Chabacano was spoken with relative ease because it was essentially a simplification of Castillan morphology patterned after Tagalog syntax. Gradually and naturally, it acquired the sounds present in the Spanish phonological system, which had the authocthonous phonetics as core. After World War II, creole Spanish speakers within the capital and surrounding regions went in decline or vanished entirely, leaving Caviteño and Ternateño as the remaining Tagalog-based Chavacano dialects in Luzon.^[92] A great number of Mexican men had settled at Cavite, spread throughout Luzon, and integrated with the local Philippine population. Some of these Mexicans became Tulisanes (Bandits) that led peasant revolts against Spain.^[93]

Ternateño

The

Chabacano.^[95]

Bicolano

The

chili peppers and coconut milk. Bicolanos have a high percentage of Spanish introgression with a government sponsored study showing 2 out of 10 Bicolanos being of Spanish descent.^[63]

Masbateño

Bicolano

is also spoken by the residents.

Groups in the Mimaropa Region

Lowland Christianized groups of the region of Mimaropa, consisting of the islands or provinces of Mindoro, Marinduque, Romblon, Palawan, and other surrounding islands. They also speak Tagalog as their second language because of arrival of Tagalog settlers from South Luzon.^[68]

Bantoanon

The

Visayan language that is lexically similar to the language of Romblomanon. Asi is spoken along with the Romblomanon and Inonhan languages and is classified under the same level as Cebuano

. One way to identify a Bantoanon is through his or her family name, which usually starts with the letter "f". Bantoanons value education, as most of them consider it a way to improve their lives. Their usual means of livelihood are trade, business, fishing, and agriculture.

Inonhan

The

Western Visayan language

. It is one of the three distinct languages spoken by the natives of Romblon.

Romblomanon

The

Asi language, and the Onhan language. Most are Roman Catholics. Due to its distance from Capiz and Aklan, most Romblomanons can speak Hiligaynon

.

Mangyan

Mangyan is the generic name for the eight indigenous groups found on the island of Mindoro, southwest of the island of Luzon in the Philippines, each with its own tribal name, language, and customs. They occupy nearly the whole of the interior of the island of Mindoro. The total population may be around 280,000, but official statistics are difficult to determine under the conditions of remote areas, reclusive tribal groups and some having little if any outside world contact. They also speak Tagalog as their second language because of arrival of Tagalog settlers from Batangas.^[68]

Iraya

The Iraya are Mangyans that live in municipalities in northern Mindoro, such as Paluan, Abra de Ilog, northern Mamburao, and Santa Cruz municipalities in Occidental Mindoro, and Puerto Galera and San Teodoro municipalities in Oriental Mindoro. They have also been found in Calamintao, on the northeastern boundary of Santa Cruz municipality (7 km up the Pagbahan River from the provincial highway). They speak the Iraya language which is part of the North Mangyan group of Malayo-Polynesian languages, though it shows considerable differences to Tadyawan and Alangan, the other languages in this group. There are 6,000 to 8,000 Iraya speakers, and that number is growing. The language status of Iraya is developing, meaning that this language is being put to use in a strong and healthy manner by its speakers, and it also has its own writing system (though not yet completely common nor maintainable).

Alangan

The

Sablayan, Occidental Mindoro

.

Tadyawan

Lake Naujan in Oriental Mindoro. They can be found in Barrio Talapaan, Socorro, Oriental Mindoro; Happy Valley, Socorro, Oriental Mindoro; and Pahilaan, Calatagan, Pola, Oriental Mindoro. They speak the Tadyawan language, which has 4 dialects, namely Nauhan, East Aglubang, West Aglubang, and Pola. Nauhan and East Aglubang are close to each other. The West Aglubang is spoken farthest out and has strong Alangan

influence.

Tawbuid

The Tau-build (or Tawbuid) Mangyans live in central Mindoro. They speak the Tawbuid language, which is divided into eastern and western dialects. The Bangon Mangyans also speak the western dialect of Tawbuid. In Oriental Mindoro, Eastern Tawbuid (also known as Bangon) is spoken by 1,130 people in the municipalities of Socorro, Pinamalayan, and Gloria.

In Occidental Mindoro, Western Tawbuid (also known as Batangan) is spoken by 6,810 people in the municipalities of Sablayan and Calintaan.

Bangon

The Mangyan group known on the east of Mindoro as Bangon may be a subgroup of Tawbuid, as they speak the 'western' dialect of that language. They also have a kind of poetry which is called the Ambahan.

Buhid

The

Mansalay, Oriental Mindoro. They speak the Buhid language in the island of Mindoro, Philippines. It is divided into eastern and western dialects and uses its own unique Buhid script, which is encoded in the Unicode-Block Buhid (Buid) (1740–175F)

.

Hanunoo

Hanunuo script, which is encoded in the Unicode-Block Hanunoo (1720–173F)

.

Ratagnon

Ratagnon (also transliterated Datagnon or Latagnon) are mangyans of the southernmost tip of Occidental Mindoro in the Mindoro Islands along the Sulu Sea. They live in the southernmost part of the municipality of Magsaysay in Occidental Mindoro. The Ratagnon language is similar to the Visayan Cuyunon language, spoken by the inhabitants of Cuyo Island in Northern Palawan. The Ratagnon women wear a wrap-around cotton cloth from the waistline to the knees and some of the males still wear the traditional g-string. The women's breast covering is made of woven nito (vine). They also wear accessories made of beads and copper wire. The males wear a jacket with simple embroidery during gala festivities and carry flint, tinder, and other paraphernalia for making fire. Both sexes wear coils of red-dyed rattan at the waistline. Like other Mangyan tribes, they also carry betel chew and its ingredients in bamboo containers. Today only around 2 to 5 people speak the Ratagnon language, which is nearly extinct, out of an ethnic population of 2,000 people, since speakers are shifting to Tagalog. They appear to also have intermarried with lowlanders.

Tribal Palaweño

The indigenous peoples of Palawan are a diverse group of both indigenous tribes and lowland groups that historically migrated to the island of Palawan and its outlying islands. These ethnolinguistic groups are widely distributed to the long strip of mainland island literally traversing Luzon, Visayas and Mindanao. Listed below are specifically the tribal groups of Palawan, as opposed to its urban lowland groups that historically settled its cities and towns. Palawan is home to many indigenous peoples whose origins date back thousands of centuries. Pre-historic discoveries reveal how abundant cultural life in Palawan survived before foreign occupiers and colonizers reached the Philippine archipelago. Today, Palawan is making its best to preserve and conserve the richness of its cultural groups. The provincial government strives to support the groups of indigenous peoples of Palawan.

Agutaynon

Cuyo Islands, namely Diit, Maracañao, Matarawis, Algeciras, Concepcion, and Quiniluban. After World War II, Agutaynen speakers were also moved to San Vicente, Roxas, Brooke's Point, Balabac, Linapacan, and Puerto Princesa City on Palawan

Island.

Kagayanen

The

Silay, Negros Occidental; Manila; Quezon and Rizal areas. Some can also speak in Hiligaynon, Filipino(Tagalog), Cuyonon, Kinaray-a, Cebuano, or English

.

Cuyunon

Visayan language, but have recently also adopted Tagalog and Hiligaynon due to an increase of Tagalog-speaking immigrants from Luzon

.

Tagbanwa

The

kaingin

and common belief in soul-relatives are part of their culture. This group are excellent in basketry and wood carving. They are also famous for their beautifully crafted body accessories. Their combs, bracelets, necklaces and anklets are usually made of wood, beads, brass and copper. The Central Tagbanwa language is dying out as the younger generations are learning Cuyonon and Tagalog.

Palawano

The

Molbog and Palawani neighbors. A small number of them are Protestant due to recent missionary

campaigns.

Taaw't Bato

The

almaciga, rattan, etc. This tribe subsists on hunting, gathering fruits and planting crops and rice near the forest. Because of their uniqueness, the Philippine government

declared their area off limits to strangers to protect them from unreasonable exploitation.

Groups in the Visayas

Lowland

ethnic group

in the nation, numbering at around 33 million as of 2010.

Abaknon

The

Sama language, and not to the languages of the peoples around them like the Bikol and Waray languages, the latter is the Abaknon speak as second language. The largest concentrations of this population are in northern Samar (8,840), and in Capul (8,735) with a total population of some 9,870 (NSO 1980). The orientation of the people is marine with the basic industry focused on fishing, with set rice farming toward the interior. The communities are highly acculturated and practically indistinguishable from the surrounding communities of mainstream ethnic groups.^[97]

Waray

The

Ilonggo

). They are historically known to be part of the Pintados people of the Visayas encountered by the Spanish and were regarded to have an established pre-Hispanic maritime militia. They are known to have cuisine with coconut milk and meat and have a slightly sweeter palette than Visayan neighbors. Animism is still a noticeable culture among the Warays and are usually practice based and alongside dominant religions.

Caluyanon

The Caluyanon people are found on the Caluya Islands of Antique Province in the Western Visayas Region. They speak the Caluyanon language, but many speakers use either Kiniray-a or Hiligaynon as their second language. According to a recent survey, around 30,000 people speak Caluyanon.^[98]

Aklanon

Kalibo, Aklan

Kinaray-a are also spoken to some extent. Meanwhile, Hiligaynon is used as a regional language. Aklanon and Hiligaynon are spoken by Aklanons in Metro Manila, while the official languages of the Philippines, Filipino and English

are taught at school.

Capiznon

The

Waray

lexicon.

Karay-a

The

North Cotabato

.

Hiligaynon

The

North Cotabato

.

Magahat

The

Negros, Santa Catalina, Bayawan, and Siaton in Negros Oriental; and in Negros Occidental. They speak the Magahat language (also called Southern Binukidnon), which is a mixture of Hiligaynon and Cebuano

. The Magahat practice swidden agriculture, because their settlements are in mountainous areas. They are food gatherers and good hunters as well.

Porohanon

metaethnicity. They speak the Porohanon language, and Cebuano as their second language. Interestingly, though, the Porohanon language has few similarities with Cebuano. It is closer to Masbateño and the Hiligaynon languages.^[99]

Cebuano

The

Boholano

The

Roman Catholic

adherents or other Christian denominations. Others practices traditional indigenous religions.

Eskaya

The

cultural minority found in Bohol, Philippines, which is distinguished by its cultural heritage, particularly its literature, language, dress and religious observances. The unique Eskayan language and writing system in particular has been a source of fascination and controversy. Today, the Eskaya are officially classified as an Indigenous

Cultural Community under The Indigenous Peoples Rights Act of 1997 (Republic Act No. 8371).

Groups in Mindanao

Lowland Christianized groups of the island of Mindanao.

Surigaonon

Tausug brothers which are predominantly Muslims

.

Kamiguin

Mambajao, Camiguin

The Kamiguin/Kamigin people inhabit the oldest town of the island of Camiguin—Guinsiliban—just off the northern coast of Mindanao. They spoke the Kamigin/Kinamigin language (Quinamiguin, Camiguinon) that is derived from Manobo with an admixture of Boholano. Sagay is the only other municipality where this is spoken. The total population is 531 (NSO 1990). Boholano predominates in the rest of the island. The culture of the Kamiguin has been subsumed within the context of Boholano or Visayan culture. The people were Christianized as early as 1596. The major agricultural products are abaca, cacao, coffee, banana, rice, corn, and coconut. The production of hemp is the major industry of the people since abaca thrives very well in the volcanic soil of the island. The plant was introduced in Bagacay, a northern town of Mindanao, but it is no longer planted there. Small-scale trade carried out with adjoining islands like Cebu, Bohol, and Mindanao.^[100] Nowadays, the language is declining as most inhabitants have shifted to Cebuano.

Butuanon

The

Roman Catholics, while some are Protestants

.

Zamboangueño

The

Spanish-based creole. They originate from the Zamboanga Peninsula, especially in Zamboanga City. Spanish censuses record that as much as one third of the inhabitants of the city of Zamboanga possess varying degrees of Spanish and Hispano-American admixture.^[101] The Zamboangueño constitute an authentic and distinct ethnic identity because of their coherent cultural and historical heritage, most notably the Old Castilian-based creole language "Chavacano" language, that distinguishes them from neighbouring ethnic groups. The region historically received immigrants from Mexico and Peru.^[102] Chavacanos are the Philippine native ethnic group which holds the most Spanish descent, a government sponsored genetic study discovered that 4 out of 10 Chavacanos or 40% of the population, are in fact Spanish in descent.^[63]

^{: Appendix page 35}

Cotabateño

Tiruray languages.^[103]

Davaoeño

Cebuano Language spoken in Davao City and the surrounding areas. It can also refer to the dialect of Chavacano Davaoeño

historically spoken around the Davao region.

Immigrants & mixed peoples

The

Spanish colonial period, the American colonial period, Japanese occupation, and modern era. Historically in the context of modern countries, they most notably came from Spain, Mexico, China, the United States, Japan, and India

. Much of these immigrant peoples throughout the centuries eventually integrated or assimilated into the country's population, producing new groups of intermixed people that many identify as part of their Filipino identity.

Across the

Spanish Mestizos) carried more social prestige due to the colonial caste system hierarchy that usually elevated Spanish blood and christianization to the peak, hence many Filipinos today associate the term "mestizo" with Spanish mestizos, while most descendants of the Mestizo de Sangley (Chinese Mestizo), despite assuming many of the important roles in the economic, social, and political life of the nation, also later readily assimilated into the fabric of Philippine society or sometimes falsely claim Spanish descent due to this situation.^[11]

Historical foreign migrants and intermixed peoples

These groups are the historical foreign migrant peoples and the intermixed peoples they produced with native groups, especially the native urban lowland peoples of the Philippines. Those listed below are those groups in modern times that still have some number of Filipinos claiming identity with such background.

Spanish Filipino

ethnologist Fëdor Jagor entitled The Former Philippines thru Foreign Eyes, not less than one third of the inhabitants of the island of Luzon were descendants of Spaniards, mixed with varying degrees of South American, Chinese, and Indian ancestry and the vast majority of military personnel then had Latin American origins.^[106]

Chinese Filipino

Mestizo de Sangley and Tornatrás Filipinos. Over the centuries, generations have both been gradually assimilated and replenished from occasional fresh immigration from family or village contacts in their Hokkien home province of Fujian in China or Taiwan, so they are still well represented in all levels of Filipino society, while leaving many historical contributions to Philippine society. Many Chinese Filipinos also play an important role in the Philippine business sector. Many of the richest families in the country are from Chinese Filipino families that run big conglomerate companies. Currently, they mostly speak and can code-switch between English and Filipino (Tagalog) or other Philippine languages, just like other Filipinos, but some families can still speak Philippine Hokkien, the historical Hokkien dialect of the Philippines. Some have also studied Mandarin, but currently, the youth are usually not fluent due to lack of practical exposure. Philippine Hokkien has vocabulary with that shares similarities with other Southeast Asian Hokkien dialects to its south, like Singaporean Hokkien, Penang Hokkien, and Medan Hokkien, and to its north, like Taiwanese Hokkien

. Philippine Hokkien has preserved vocabulary that most Hokkien speakers in China would regard as old-fashioned.

Mestizo de Español (Spanish Mestizo)

These are the mixed descendants of the native peoples of the Philippines with the

Spanish era, also hold sizable mestizo communities.^[110]

Mestizo de Sangley (Chinese Mestizo)

Spanish Era. Most were of Hokkien ancestry, with a few being of Cantonese, Taishanese or Japanese

ancestry. Sangley is a Hokkien word from sng-lí (生理) meaning "business",

Tornatrás (Spanish-Chinese Mestizo)

Spanish Era. Most now have native ancestry along with Hokkien or other Han Chinese/Japanese ancestry as well as Spanish

or other Hispanic ancestry.

American Filipino/Filipino American

American (Amerikano/Kano) settlement in the Philippines began during the

U.S. citizens living in the Philippines, with a significant mixed population of Amerasians and descendants from the colonial era as well. Since 1898, when the United States annexed the Philippines from Spain, there were as many as 21 U.S. bases and 100,000 U.S. military personnel stationed there. The bases closed in 1992 leaving behind thousands of Amerasian children. There are an estimated 52,000 Amerasians in the Philippines, but an academic research paper presented in the U.S. (in 2012) by an Angeles, Pampanga, Philippines Amerasian college research study unit suggests that the number could be a lot more, possibly reaching 250,000 this is also partially due to the fact that almost all Amerasian intermarried with other Amerasian and Filipino natives. This group also includes Filipino American (Fil-Am), and sometimes Filipino Canadian, returnee migrants from the United States and Canada

.

Filipinos with Arab ancestry

Sultan Dipatuan Kudarat in Rizal Park

, Manila

sultanates were established overlapping the existing indigenous Filipino barangay (village) governing system and Indianized royalty. The two largest were the Sultanate of Maguindanao, which loosely governed most of southern Mindanao and the Sultanate of Sulu, which included Basilan, Jolo, and parts of Borneo. Several other smaller but famous sultanates were also established such as the sultanates of Lanao in Mindanao, which was later conquered by the Spanish in the 16th century. The ties between the sultanates in Mindanao remained economically and culturally close to Indonesia, Brunei, and Malaysia until the end of the 19th century when the sultanates were weakened by the Spanish and later the American military during the Spanish and American colonial period. Today, there are numerous Arab-descended Filipino families, especially royal or noble Muslim families in Mindanao. In modern times, there has also been immigration from Arab countries in the Middle East, especially those recently devastated by war in the recent decades like Lebanon and Syria

.

Indian Filipino/Mestizo de Bombay (Indian Mestizo)

The Philippines has had historical connections with

Tamil population also existing. Many are fluent in Filipino (Tagalog) and English as well as other local languages of the provinces and islands. Many are prosperous middle-class citizens, with their main occupations being in clothing sales and marketing. Sikhs are involved largely in finance, money lending (locally called five-six), sales

and marketing.

Japanese Filipino

Japanese people have been settling in the Philippines for centuries even before World War II, therefore there has been much cultural and genetic blending. The Ryukyu Kingdom (located in modern-day Okinawa Prefecture) also had heavy trade and mixing in the Philippines, particularly in Northern Luzon, as depicted in the Boxer Codex.^[114]^{[unreliable source]}^[115]^{[failed verification]}

Bagobo, and those in Baguio with the Igorot.^[118] Many eventually completely lost their Japanese identity while others have immigrated to the US or "returned" to Japan, the homeland of their forebears. Most Japanese Filipinos in the modern times (colloquially called Japino) are now fresh new immigrants from Japanese businessmen who went with female OFW entertainers in Japan. The Filipina mothers usually return to the Philippines with their children along with them. Other Japanese who stayed in the country initially came to the Philippines to learn English or set up businesses. These days, most Japanese Filipinos can be found around Davao, Baguio, Iloilo or Cebu, as well other cities and towns, with only a few around Metro Manila, though historically there were many around Manila, such as Plaza Dilao in Paco, Manila.^[119]^[120]

Sangil/Sangirese

The

North Cotabato, South Cotabato, General Santos and Davao City, ^[61]^[62]

because of its proximity to Indonesia; they speak Cebuano & Tagalog as second languages & are Protestant Christians by faith. The exact population of Sangil people in the Philippines is unknown, but is estimated to be around 10,000 people.

Jewish Filipino

As of 2005^[update], Filipino Jews numbered at the most 500 people.

Chabad House.^{[citation needed]} There are, of course, other Jews elsewhere in the country, like the Bagelboys of Subic and Angeles City^[121] but these are obviously fewer and almost all transients,^[122] either diplomats or business envoys, and their existence is almost totally unknown in mainstream society. There are a few Israelis in Manila working at call centers and a few other executives. There are also a number of converts to Judaism.^{[citation needed}

]

Recent modern immigrants and expatriates

These migrant groups are relatively recent immigrants and expatriate groups that mostly immigrated in the modern era, specifically around the 20th century especially from post-

British citizen or British National (Overseas) – from British Hong Kong). Most of these foreign aliens with work permits are based in the National Capital Region (Metro Manila), followed by Calabarzon (Southern Tagalog), and Central Visayas, representing the more developed regions of the country. Most of them are employed in the manufacturing sector, although they tend to be involved in other sectors as well. The majority work in administrative, executive and managerial positions. The top three nationalities of registered aliens are Chinese (59,000), Koreans (39,000) and Americans (26,000).^[123] According to the 2010 Census of Population and Housing, the top five countries of origin of foreign citizens were: the United States of America (29,959), China, (28,750), Japan (11,583), and India (8,963) (NSO, 2012).^[124]

Europeans, Africans, or those from Latin America are often confused with Americans in the Philippines, leading to many being referred to as Kano (short for Amerikano).

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Philippines – Ethnic groups, thecorpusjuris.com, retrieved on 2008-04-06 (See Article XV, Section 3(3))

Who are the Kagayanens?, Indigenous People Movement

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Notes

^ Including others such as Latin-Americans and Chinese-Mestizos, pure Chinese paid tribute but were not Philippine citizens as they were transients who returned to China, and Spaniards were exempt

Authority control databases: National

Israel

United States

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[94] (Page 10) Pérez, Marilola (2015). Cavite Chabacano Philippine Creole Spanish: Description and Typology (PDF) (PhD). University of California, Berkeley. Archived from the original on January 14, 2021. The galleon activities also attracted a great number of Mexican men that arrived from the Mexican Pacific coast as ships' crewmembers (Grant 2009: 230). Mexicans were administrators, priests and soldiers (guachinangos or hombres de pueblo) (Bernal 1964: 188) many though, integrated into the peasant society, even becoming tulisanes 'bandits' who in the late 18th century "infested" Cavite and led peasant revolts (Medina 2002: 66). Meanwhile, in the Spanish garrisons, Spanish was used among administrators and priests. Nonetheless, there is not enough historical information on the social role of these men. In fact some of the few references point to a quick integration into the local society: "los hombres del pueblo, los soldados y marinos, anónimos, olvidados, absorbidos en su totalidad por la población Filipina." (Bernal 1964: 188). In addition to the Manila-Acapulco galleon, a complex commercial maritime system circulated European and Asian commodities including slaves. During the 17th century, Portuguese vessels traded with the ports of Manila and Cavite, even after the prohibition of 1644 (Seijas 2008: 21). Crucially, the commercial activities included the smuggling and trade of slaves: "from the Moluccas, and Malacca, and India… with the monsoon winds" carrying "clove spice, cinnamon, and pepper and black slaves, and Kafir [slaves]" (Antonio de Morga cf Seijas 2008: 21)." Though there is no data on the numbers of slaves in Cavite, the numbers in Manila suggest a significant fraction of the population had been brought in as slaves by the Portuguese vessels. By 1621, slaves in Manila numbered 1,970 out of a population of 6,110. This influx of slaves continued until late in the 17th century; according to contemporary cargo records in 1690, 200 slaves departed from Malacca to Manila (Seijas 2008: 21). Different ethnicities were favored for different labor; Africans were brought to work on the agricultural production, and skilled slaves from India served as caulkers and carpenters.

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[45] Including others such as Latin-Americans and Chinese-Mestizos, pure Chinese paid tribute but were not Philippine citizens as they were transients who returned to China, and Spaniards were exempt

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