Filipino nationalism
Filipino nationalism refers to the establishment and support of a
Background
In the years before the 11th century, the Philippines was divided into numerous principalities known as barangays, a name derived from Malayan boats called
In 1565, European colonization began in earnest when Spanish explorer
Luzon has been the dominant island since the era of Spanish colonialism and played an important role in the national movement. While predominantly Christian, the southern islands (Mindanao, and the Sulu Archipelago) have a significant Muslim population since the 14th century, having been established by traders and missionaries from several sultanates in the wider Malay Archipelago, along the routes that follow Borneo's coast.[5]
The start of Filipino nationalism (1760s–1820s)
The term "Filipino" originally referred to the Spanish criollos of the Philippines. During their 333-year rule of the Philippines, the Spanish rulers referred the natives as indios.[6]
Also during the colonial era, the Spaniards born in the Philippines, who were more known as insulares, criollos, or Creoles, were also called "Filipinos." Spanish-born Spaniards or mainland Spaniards residing in the Philippines were referred to as
Effect of the progress during the period (1760s–1820s)
The earliest signs of the effect to Filipino Nationalism by the developments mentioned could be seen in the writings of
Economy
The decline of Galleon trade between Manila and Acapulco was caused by the arrival of the ship Buen Consejo in 1765. The Buen Consejo took the shorter route[1][clarification needed] via Cape of Good Hope, a rocky headland on the Atlantic coast controlled by Portugal. The journey through the Cape of Good Hope takes three months from Spain to the Philippines, whereas the journey of the galleon trade takes five months. The event proved that Portugal was already past its prime in controlling the route via the Cape of Good Hope, which was already under Dutch control as early as 1652. Shorter journeys to and from Spain brought faster trade and quicker spread of ideas from Europe.[1] Also, the growing sense of economic insecurity in the later years of the 18th century led the Creoles to turn their attention to agricultural production. The Creoles gradually changed from a very government-dependent class into capital-driven entrepreneurs. Their turning of attention towards guilded soil caused the rise of the large private haciendas. Various government and church positions were transferred to the roles of the Peninsulares who were characterized mostly in the 19th century Philippine history as corrupt bureaucrats.
During the 1780s, two institutions were established in order to enhance the economic capacity of the Philippines. These were the
Education
During the administration of Governor-General
Secularization of parishes
By royal decree on February 27, 1767, King Carlos III ordered the Jesuits to be expelled from Spain, and from all her colonies. The decree reached the Philippines in early 1768, wherein Governor-General Raon tried to do the Jesuits a favor by delaying the implementation of the royal order in exchange of bribes. This gave the Jesuit priests to hide all of their possessions and destroy documents that could be held against them, which were supposed to be confiscated. The first batch of Jesuits, numbered 64, left Manila only by May 17, 1768.[10] This event caused Raon to face prosecution from the next Governor-General, as ordered by the King of Spain. Raon died before the judgment for him was laid.[1]
The expulsion of Jesuit priests from the country resulted to a shortage of priests in the parishes. This prompted the current Manila archbishop, Basilio Sancho de Santa Justa, to launch his favorite project: secularization of Philippine parishes. Sancho reasoned out that priests were only sent to facilitate missions to areas that are not yet much Christianized. Native priests must be ordained to facilitate the parishes since the Philippines was already a Christian country. Sancho recruited every Indio he got to become priests. There was even a joke at the time that there were no one to man the galleons anymore, since Sancho had made them all priests. The secularization partly failed because many members of the newly formed native clergy soiled the parishes with their ignorance, sloth, and the like. One achievement of Sancho's secularization project was the establishment of a school for native boys who aspire to become priests.
Further progress of Filipino nationalism (1820s–1860)
At this stage, the Creoles slowly introduced their own reforms. Parishes began to have native priests at the time of Archbishop Sancho. The
Economic developments also did a part in making up the shape of Filipino Nationalism.
Before the opening of Manila to foreign trade, the Spanish authorities discouraged foreign merchants from residing in the colony and engaging in business.
Shortly after opening Manila to world trade, the Spanish merchants began to lose their commercial supremacy in the Philippines. In 1834, restrictions against foreign traders were relaxed when Manila became an open port. By the end of 1859, there were 15 foreign firms in Manila: seven of which were British, three American, two French, two Swiss and one German.
First Propaganda Movement (1860–1872)
Varela would then retire from politics but his nationalism was carried on by another Creole, one
Demonstrations became a norm in Manila during the 1860s. One of the first of a series of demonstrations was during the transfer of the remains of former Governor-General
During this period, a secret society of reformists met in a cistern under a well at the house of Father
Another event in history created an impact on Filipino nationalism during this period. Before 1869, the route through the Cape of Good Hope proved to be a shortest available journey to Europe by Indios and Creoles alike. The journey takes 3 months travel by sea. On November 17, 1869, the Suez Canal opened after 10 years of construction work. At its advent, the journey from the Philippines to Spain was further reduced to one month. This allowed a much faster spread of European ideology and an increase of Filipino presence in Europe itself. The Propaganda Movement would later benefit from the Suez Canal for the shorter route it provided.
Second Propaganda Movement (1872–1892)
The events of 1872 however invited the other colored section of the Ilustrados (intellectually enlightened class), the growing middle-class natives, to at least do something to preserve the Creole ideals. Seeing the impossibility of a revolution against Izquierdo and the Governor-General's brutal reign convinced the
The Filipino identity that emerged was based around the idea of unity among the lowland Catholic population that was integrated into the Spanish system, not yet encompassing the Moros in the south and the tribal people who lived in the mountainous interior.[20]
Post-propaganda era
By July 1892, Rizal returned to the Philippines and established a progressive organization he called the La Liga Filipina (The Philippine League).[21] However, the organization collapsed after Rizal's arrest and deportation to Dapitan on July 7. At the same day, a Philippine revolutionary society was founded by Ilustrados led by Andrés Bonifacio, Deodato Arellano, Ladislao Diwa, Teodoro Plata and Valentín Díaz.[22] The main aim of the organization, named Katipunan, was to win Philippine independence through a revolution and establish a republic thereafter.[23] The rise of the Katipunan signaled the end of peaceful propaganda for reforms.
Philippine Revolution
The Katipunan reached an overwhelming membership and attracted almost the lowly of the Filipino class.[citation needed] In June 1896, Bonifacio sent an emissary to Dapitan to reach Rizal's support, but the latter refused for an armed revolution. On August 19, 1896, Katipunan was discovered by a Spanish friar which started the Philippine Revolution.
The revolution flared up initially into the eight provinces of Central Luzon. General Emilio Aguinaldo, a member of the Katipunan, spread an armed resistance through Southern Tagalog region where he liberated Cavite towns little by little. Leadership conflicts between Bonifacio and Aguinaldo culminated in the Imus Assembly in December 1896 and Tejeros Convention in March 1897. Aguinaldo was elected in absentia as President of an insurgent revolutionary government by the Tejeros convention. Bonifacio, acting as Supremo of the Katipunan, declared the convention proceedings void and attempted to reassert leadership of the revolution. In late April Aguinaldo fully assumed presidential office after consolidating his position with revolutionary leaders. Aguinaldo's government then ordered the arrest of Bonifacio, who stood trial on charges of sedition and treason against Aguinaldo's government and conspiracy to murder Aguinaldo. Bonifacio was convicted in a rigged trial by a kangaroo court composed of Aguinaldo loyalists.[24][25][26] Bonifacio was subsequently executed.
In December 1897, Aguinaldo agreed to the
Independence declaration and the Philippine-American War
In 1898, as conflicts continued in the Philippines, the USS Maine, having been sent to Cuba because of U.S. concerns for the safety of its citizens during an ongoing Cuban revolution, exploded and sank in Havana harbor. This event precipitated the Spanish–American War.[27] After Commodore George Dewey defeated the Spanish squadron at Manila, a German squadron, led by Vice Admiral Otto von Diederichs, arrived in Manila and engaged in maneuvers which Dewey, seeing this as obstruction of his blockade, offered war—after which the Germans backed down.[28]
The U.S. invited Aguinaldo to return to the Philippines in the hope he would rally Filipinos against the Spanish colonial government. Aguinaldo arrived on May 19, 1898, via transport provided by Dewey. By the time U.S. land forces had arrived, the Filipinos had taken control of the entire island of Luzon, except for the walled city of Intramuros. On June 12, 1898, Aguinaldo declared the independence of the Philippines in Kawit, Cavite, establishing the First Philippine Republic under Asia's first democratic constitution, the Malolos Constitution, an insurgency against Spanish rule.[29]
Spain and the United States sent commissioners to Paris to draw up the terms of the Treaty of Paris which ended the Spanish–American War. In the treaty, Spain ceded the Philippines, along with Guam and Puerto Rico, to the United States. Cession of the Philippines involved payment by the U.S. of US$20,000,000.00.[30] U.S. President McKinley described the acquisition of the Philippines as "... a gift from the gods", saying that since "they were unfit for self-government, ... there was nothing left for us to do but to take them all, and to educate the Filipinos, and uplift and civilize and Christianize them",[31][32] in spite of the Philippines having been already Christianized by the Spanish over the course of several centuries.
Filipino forces under Aguinaldo as President of the insurgent
Aguinaldo was captured at
The Insular Government and the Commonwealth era (1901–1946)
Insular Government
The 1902
Two years after completion and publication of a census, a general election was conducted for the choice of delegates to a popular assembly. An elected Philippine Assembly was convened in 1907 as the lower house of a bicameral legislature, with the Philippine Commission as the upper house. Every year from 1907 the Philippine Assembly and later the Philippine Legislature passed resolutions expressing the Filipino desire for independence.
Philippine nationalists led by
The law, officially the
The Filipinos suspended their independence campaign during the First World War and supported the United States against Germany. After the war they resumed their independence efforts. The Philippine legislature funded an independence mission to the U.S. in 1919. The mission departed Manila on February 28 and met in the U.S. with and presented their case to Secretary of War Newton D. Baker. U.S. President Woodrow Wilson, in his 1921 farewell message to Congress, certified that the Filipino people had performed the condition imposed on them as a prerequisite to independence, declaring that, this having been done, the duty of the U.S. is to grant Philippine independence.[37]
After the first independence mission, public funding of such missions was ruled illegal. Subsequent independence missions in 1922, 1923, 1930, 1931 1932, and two missions in 1933 were funded by voluntary contributions. Numerous independence bills were submitted to the U.S. Congress, which passed the Hare–Hawes–Cutting Bill on December 30, 1932. U.S. President
Commonwealth era
The Tydings-McDuffie Act provided for the drafting and guidelines of a
On September 17, 1935,
Japanese occupation and the Second Republic (1941–1945)
The Philippine Executive Commission was established in 1942 with
The
In October 1944, General Douglas MacArthur, the overall commander of American forces in the Pacific, had gathered enough additional troops and supplies to begin the retaking of the Philippines, landing with Sergio Osmeña who had assumed the Presidency after Quezon's death. The battles entailed long fierce fighting; some of the Japanese continued to fight until the official surrender of the Empire of Japan on September 2, 1945. The Second Republic was dissolved earlier, on August 14. After their landing, Filipino and American forces also undertook measures to suppress the Huk movement, which was founded to fight the Japanese Occupation.
Third Republic (1946–1972)
Carlos, America buried imperialism here today!
On July 4, 1946, representatives of the United States of America and of the
From 1946 to 1961, the Philippines observed Independence Day on July 4. However, on May 12, 1962, President Diosdado Macapagal issued Presidential Proclamation No. 28 proclaiming June 12, 1962, as a special public holiday throughout the Philippines.[42][43] In 1964, Republic Act No. 4166 changed the date of Independence Day from July 4 to June 12 and renamed the July 4 holiday as Philippine Republic Day.[44]
But in the hearts of eighteen million Filipinos, the American flag now flies more triumphantly than ever.
Despite eventual success of Filipinos to claim political and social independence, a new type of colonialism rose in the country. It is known as
Radical nationalism
After World War II, the Hukbalahap (Filipino: Hukbong Bayan Laban sa mga Hapon) guerillas continued the revolutionary struggle to establish a Communist government in the Philippines.[45] Nationalism in the real sense remained stuck up in a false Filipinistic posture.[45] The radical wing of the nationalists, led by peasant leader Luis Taruc, renamed themselves as the Hukbong Magpalaya ng Bayan (English: Army to Liberate the People). At its heyday, the Huk movement commanded an estimated 170,000 armed troops with a base of at least two million civilian supporters.[47] Ramon Magsaysay, which was then the Secretary of National Defense during the Quirino administration, was instrumental in halting the Communist movement.
In 1964, Jose Maria Sison co-founded the Kabataang Makabayan (Patriotic Youth) with Nilo S. Tayag. This organization rallied the Filipino youth against the Vietnam War, against the Marcos presidency, and corrupt politicians. On December 26, 1968, he formed and chaired the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Philippines (CPP), an organization within the Communist Party founded on Marxist–Leninist-Mao Zedong Thought, stemming from his own experiences as a youth leader and a labor and land reform activist. This is known as the "First Great Rectification" movement where Sison and other radical youths criticized the existing Party's leadership and failure. The reformed CPP included Maoism within the political line as well as the struggle for a National Democratic Revolution in two-stages, consisting of a protracted people's war as its first part to be followed by a socialist revolution.
Radical nationalism in the Philippines emphasized the Philippine Revolution under Bonifacio as unfinished and henceforth continued, under working class leadership. Writers such as Teodoro Agoncillo and Renato Constantino advocated patriotism by means of revisiting Filipino history in a Filipino perspective.
Martial law and the Fourth Republic (1972–1986)
Martial law under Ferdinand Marcos
The Third Philippine Republic established in 1946 after World War II ended with the declaration of Martial law under Ferdinand Marcos shortly before what was supposed to be the end of his last allowable term under the 1935 Constitution of the Philippines.[48]
On September 22, 1972, then-Defense Minister Juan Ponce Enrile was reportedly ambushed by communists in San Juan, killing his driver but leaving him unscathed.[undue weight? ] The Enrile ambush was widely believed to have been faked.[49][50][51] The assassination attempt, the growing threat of the New People's Army, and citizen unrest, were used by Marcos as justification to declare Proclamation No. 1081, which he signed on September 17 (postdated to September 21), the same day.[52]
Nationalist forms in the opposition
The media reports of the time just before the declaration of Martial Law classified the various Nationalist civil society groups opposing Marcos into two categories.
Marcos nationalist propaganda
Marcos developed a
Marcos cast a propaganda image himself as King, and of his wife Imelda as Queen,
To support this, Marcos and Imelda spent a big part of the government budget on grandiose construction projects, a propaganda technique eventually labelled the Marcoses' "
The first years of martial law saw an increase in military hardware and personnel in the Philippines, as well as a short-lived boost in agricultural productivity.[52] By encouraging the use of recently invented "miracle" rice variant IR8 the administration was able to raise rice production (which increased 42% in 8 years),[82] to decrease dependence on food importation during the early years of Martial Law, although the gains collapsed in the 1980s when the farm credit system under Marcos' Masagana 99 program ran out of money[83] after having become a vehicle of political patronage.[84][85][86]
To help finance his administration's projects, the Marcos government borrowed large amounts of money from international lenders.[87][88] Thus, proving that the country was not yet fully independent economically. The Philippines' external debt rose from $360 million (US) in 1962 to $28.3 billion in 1986, making the Philippines one of the most indebted countries in Asia.[87]
The Fifth Republic (1986–present)
From February 22–25, 1986, many demonstrations against Marcos took place on a long stretch of
In 1986, Aquino adopted
On June 12, 1998, the nation celebrated its centennial year of independence from Spain. The celebrations were held simultaneously nationwide by then President Fidel V. Ramos and Filipino communities worldwide. A commission was established for the said event, the National Centennial Commission headed by former Vice President Salvador Laurel presided all events around the country. One of the major projects of the commission was the Expo Pilipino, a grand showcase of the Philippines' growth as a nation for the last 100 years, in the Clark Special Economic Zone (formerly Clark Air Base) in Angeles City, Pampanga.
During his term, President Joseph Estrada ordered to the National Telecommunications Commission (NTC) to adopt a Filipino language-based radio format known as masa—named for his icon term Masa (or Masses).[citation needed] All radio stations adopted the masa format in 1998.[citation needed] Many stations continued to use the masa format after President Estrada left the presidency in 2001 because the masa format resonated with listeners.[90] Some in the radio industry decry the effects masa formatting has had.[91]
On August 14, 2010, President Benigno Aquino III directed the Department of Transportation and Communications (DOTC) and the NTC to fully implement Executive Order No. 255, issued on July 25, 1987, by former Philippines President Corazon Aquino, requiring all radio stations to broadcast a minimum of four original Filipino musical compositions in every clock hour of programs with a musical format.[92]
On November 4, 2010, Philippine TV network ABS-CBN released its 2010–2011 Christmas Station ID Ngayong Pasko Magniningning Ang Pilipino (lit. 'The Filipinos will Shine this Christmas'), with the station ID features the Philippine flag, montages relating to the Philippine nationalism and patriotism such as the Pinoy pride, and the flag's sun being used as the parol or star making it an octagram or eight-sided star.[93]
On April 13, 2012, The Manila Times, the oldest English language newspaper in the Philippines, published an editorial titled "Unpatriotic editing and reporting," taking the Filipino journalistic community to task for their reporting of what it described as "confrontation between our Philippine Navy and 'law enforcement' ships of the People's Republic of China" in the Spratly Islands. The editorial opined that Philippine reports should state that disputed territories are Philippine territory, and characterized those who refer to disputed territories as "being claimed by the Philippines" as "unpatriotic writers and editors".[94]
On February 14, 2013,
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Further reading
- Bankoff, Greg; Weekley, Kathleen (November 22, 2017). Post-Colonial National Identity in the Philippines: Celebrating the Centennial of Independence. Routledge. ISBN 9781351742092.
- Salonga, Aileen O. (2016). "Serving the World, Serving the Nation: Everyday Nationalism and English in Philippine Offshore Call Centres". In Mirchandani, Kiran; Poster, Winifred (eds.). Borders in Service: Enactments of Nationhood in Transnational Call Centres. University of Toronto Press. ISBN 9781487520595.