Filipinos

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
This article is about the people of the Philippines. For the demographics, see Demographics of the Philippines. For other uses, see Filipino (disambiguation).

Filipinos
Mga Pilipino
Iglesia Filipina Independiente
  • Indigenous Philippine folk religions
  • Atheism
    • Related ethnic groups
    Austronesian peoples, Native Indonesian

    Filipinos (

    Spanish colonialism, only around 2–4% of Filipinos are fluent in Spanish.[51] Currently, there are more than 185 ethnolinguistic groups in the Philippines each with its own language
    , identity, culture, tradition, and history.

    Names

    See also: Names of the Philippines

    The name Filipino, as a

    Spanish colonial period, natives of the Philippine islands were usually known in the Philippines itself by the generic terms indio ("Indian (native of the East Indies)") or indigena 'indigenous',[54] while the generic term chino ("Chinese"),[55][56] short for indio chino was used in Spanish America to differentiate from the Native American indios of the Spanish colonies in the Americas and the West Indies. The term Filipino was sometimes added by Spanish writers to distinguish the indio chino native of the Philippine archipelago from the indio of the Spanish colonies in the Americas, which were free people and legally barred from being used as slaves, unlike those from the Philippines.[55]
    [57][53] The term Indio Filipino appears as a term of self-identification beginning in the 18th century.[53]

    In 1955, Agnes Newton Keith wrote that a 19th century edict prohibited the use of the word "Filipino" to refer to indios. This reflected popular belief, although no such edict has been found.[53] The idea that the term Filipino was not used to refer to indios until the 19th century has also been mentioned by historians such as Salah Jubair[58] and Renato Constantino.[59] However, in a 1994 publication the historian William Henry Scott identified instances in Spanish writing where "Filipino" did refer to "indio" natives.[60] Instances of such usage include the Relación de las Islas Filipinas (1604) of Pedro Chirino, in which he wrote chapters entitled "Of the civilities, terms of courtesy, and good breeding among the Filipinos" (Chapter XVI), "Of the Letters of the Filipinos" (Chapter XVII), "Concerning the false heathen religion, idolatries, and superstitions of the Filipinos" (Chapter XXI), "Of marriages, dowries, and divorces among the Filipinos" (Chapter XXX),[61] while also using the term "Filipino" to refer unequivocally to the non-Spaniard natives of the archipelago like in the following sentence:

    The first and last concern of the Filipinos in cases of sickness was, as we have stated, to offer some sacrifice to their anitos or diwatas, which were their gods.[62]

    — Pedro Chirino, Relación de las Islas Filipinas

    In the Crónicas (1738) of Juan Francisco de San Antonio, the author devoted a chapter to "The Letters, languages and politeness of the Philippinos", while Francisco Antolín argued in 1789 that "the ancient wealth of the Philippinos is much like that which the Igorots have at present".[53] These examples prompted the historian William Henry Scott to conclude that during the Spanish colonial period:

    [...]the people of the Philippines were called Filipinos when they were practicing their own culture—or, to put it another way, before they became indios.[53]

    — William Henry Scott, Barangay- Sixteenth Century Philippine Culture and Society

    While the Philippine-born Spaniards during the 19th century began to be called españoles filipinos, logically contracted to just Filipino, to distinguish them from the Spaniards born in Spain, they themselves resented the term, preferring to identify themselves as "hijo/s del país" ("sons of the country").[53]

    In the latter half of the 19th century,

    Luis Rodríguez Varela was the first to describe himself as Filipino in print.[66] Apolinario Mabini (1896) used the term Filipino to refer to all inhabitants of the Philippines. Father Jose Burgos earlier called all natives of the archipelago as Filipinos.[67] In Wenceslao Retaña's Diccionario de filipinismos, he defined Filipinos as follows,[68]

    todos los nacidos en Filipinas sin distincion de origen ni de raza.
    All those born in the Philippines without distinction of origin or race.

    — Wenceslao E. Retaña, Diccionario De Filipinismos: Con La Revisión De Lo Que Al Respecto Lleva Publicado La Real Academia Española

    Republic of the Philippines, including non-native inhabitants of the country as per the Philippine nationality law.[53] However, the term has been rejected as an identification in some instances by minorities who did not come under Spanish control, such as the Igorot and Muslim Moros.[53][59]

    The lack of the letter "F" in the 1940–1987 standardized Tagalog alphabet (Abakada) caused the letter "P" to be substituted for "F", though the alphabets or writing scripts of some non-Tagalog ethnic groups included the letter "F". Upon official adoption of the modern, 28-letter Filipino alphabet in 1987, the term Filipino was preferred over Pilipino.[citation needed] Locally, some still use "Filipino" to refer to the people and "Pilipino" to refer to the language, but in international use "Filipino" is the usual form for both.

    A number of Filipinos refer to themselves colloquially as "Pinoy" (feminine: "Pinay"), which is a slang word formed by taking the last four letters of "Filipino" and adding the diminutive suffix "-y".

    In 2020, the neologism Filipinx appeared; a demonym applied only to those of Filipino heritage in the diaspora and specifically referring to and coined by Filipino Americans[citation needed] imitating Latinx, itself a recently coined gender-inclusive alternative to Latino or Latina. An online dictionary made an entry of the term, applying it to all Filipinos within the Philippines or in the diaspora.[70] In actual practice, however, the term is unknown among and not applied to Filipinos living in the Philippines, and Filipino itself is already treated as gender-neutral. The dictionary entry resulted in confusion, backlash and ridicule from Filipinos residing in the Philippines who never identified themselves with the foreign term.[71][72]

    Native Filipinos were also called Manilamen (or Manila men) by English-speaking regions or Tagalas by Spanish-speakers during the colonial era. They were mostly sailors and pearl-divers and established communities in various ports around the world.[73][74] One of the notable settlements of Manilamen is the community of Saint Malo, Louisiana, founded at around 1763 to 1765 by escaped slaves and deserters from the Spanish Navy.[75][76][77][78] There were also significant numbers of Manilamen in Northern Australia and the Torres Strait Islands in the late 1800s who were employed in the pearl hunting industries.[79][80]

    In Mexico (especially in the Mexican states of Guerrero and Colima), Filipino immigrants arriving to New Spain during the 16th and 17th centuries via the Manila galleons were called chino, which led to the confusion of early Filipino immigrants with that of the much later Chinese immigrants to Mexico from the 1880s to the 1940s. A genetic study in 2018 has also revealed that around one-third of the population of Guerrero have 10% Filipino ancestry.[81][82]

    History

    Main article: History of the Philippines

    Prehistory

    Main article: Prehistory of the Philippines
    See also: Negrito and Austronesian peoples
    archaic human. ; [3] Callao Cave
    .

    The oldest

    uranium-series dating to the Late Pleistocene, c. 67,000 years old. The remains were initially identified as modern human, but after the discovery of more specimens in 2019, they have been reclassified as being members of a new species – Homo luzonensis.[83][84]

    The oldest indisputable modern human (

    Metal Age cultures in the area.[87]

    Migration of the sea-faring Austronesian peoples and their languages.
    The Negritos are descendants of one of the earliest groups of modern humans to reach the Philippines

    The Tabon Cave remains (along with the

    Mamanwa of Mindanao. Today they comprise just 0.03% of the total Philippine population.[89]

    After the Negritos, were two early Paleolithic migrations from East Asian (basal

    Sama-Bajau people of Mindanao.[90]

    The last wave of prehistoric migrations to reach the Philippines was the

    Austronesia, which in modern times include Micronesia, coastal New Guinea, Island Melanesia, Polynesia, and Madagascar, in addition to Maritime Southeast Asia and Taiwan.[94][95]

    The connections between the various

    Melayu people.[99][100][101][102]

    Archaic epoch (to 1565)

    Since at least the 3rd century, various ethnic groups established several communities. These were formed by the assimilation of various native Philippine kingdoms.[89] South Asian and East Asian people together with the people of the Indonesian archipelago and the Malay Peninsula, traded with Filipinos and introduced Hinduism and Buddhism to the native tribes of the Philippines. Most of these people stayed in the Philippines where they were slowly absorbed into local societies.

    Many of the

    Indochina, China, Japan, India and Arabia. A thalassocracy
    had thus emerged based on international trade.

    Even scattered barangays, through the development of inter-island and international trade, became more culturally homogeneous by the 4th century. Hindu-Buddhist culture and religion flourished among the noblemen in this era.

    In the period between the 7th to the beginning of the 15th centuries, numerous prosperous centers of trade had emerged, including the Kingdom of

    Okinawa
    .

    From the 9th century onwards, a large number of Arab traders from the Middle East settled in the Malay Archipelago and intermarried with the local Malay, Bruneian, Malaysian, Indonesian and Luzon and Visayas indigenous populations.[106]

    In the years leading up to 1000 AD, there were already several maritime societies existing in the islands but there was no unifying political

    Brunei.[112][113][114]

    Historic caste systems

    Visayan
    tumao were the nobility social class among various cultures of the pre-colonial Philippines. Among the Visayans, the tumao were further distinguished from the immediate royal families or a ruling class.

    Timawa – The timawa class were free commoners of Luzon and the Visayas who could own their own land and who did not have to pay a regular tribute to a maginoo, though they would, from time to time, be obliged to work on a datu's land and help in community projects and events. They were free to change their allegiance to another datu if they married into another community or if they decided to move.

    Maharlika – Members of the Tagalog warrior class known as maharlika had the same rights and responsibilities as the timawa, but in times of war they were bound to serve their datu in battle. They had to arm themselves at their own expense, but they did get to keep the loot they took. Although they were partly related to the nobility, the maharlikas were technically less free than the timawas because they could not leave a datu's service without first hosting a large public feast and paying the datu between 6 and 18 pesos in gold – a large sum in those days.

    serfs
    and commoners.

    By the 15th century, Arab and Indian missionaries and traders from Malaysia and Indonesia brought Islam to the Philippines, where it both replaced and was practiced together with indigenous religions. Before that, indigenous tribes of the Philippines practiced a mixture of

    Rajahs, Datus and Sultans, a class called Maginoo (royals) and defended by the Maharlika (Lesser nobles, royal warriors and aristocrats).[89] These Royals and Nobles are descended from native Filipinos with varying degrees of Indo-Aryan and Dravidian, which is evident in today's DNA analysis among South East Asian Royals. This tradition continued among the Spanish and Portuguese traders who also intermarried with the local populations.[115]

    Spanish colonisation and rule (1521–1898)

    Justiniano Asuncion
    Economic Life in Spanish Colonial Philippines, with Native and Sangley Chinese traders
    Depiction of Filipino celebration

    The first census in the Philippines was in 1591, based on tributes collected. The tributes counted the total founding population of the Spanish-Philippines as 667,612 people.

    Indo-European speaking Bengalis
    into the ethnic mix.

    The Philippines was Colonised by the

    rajahs, datus and sultans to reinforce the colonization of the islands. The Ginoo and Maharlika castes (royals and nobles) in the Philippines prior to the arrival of the Spanish formed the privileged Principalía (nobility) during the early Spanish period.

    Sangley Chinese Merchant & Native Filipina of Manila by José Honorato Lozano
    The Selden Map, connecting Quanzhou to Manila
    The Urdaneta Tornaviaje Route of the Manila-Acapulco Galleon Trade, connecting the Philippines to the Americas
    Global Trade Routes of the Spanish and Portuguese Empire

    The arrival of the Spaniards to the Philippines, especially through the commencement of the

    Southern Fujian, the Philippines' historical trade partner with Mainland China
    .

    In the 16th and 17th centuries, thousands of

    Nikkei community of Japanese Filipinos in Davao with roots to the old Little Japan in Mintal or Calinan in Davao City during the American colonial period, where many had roots starting out in Abaca plantations or from workers of the Benguet Road (Kennon Road) to Baguio
    .

    Indo-European speaking Bangladeshis
    into the ethnic mix.

    Leaders of the reform movement in Spain: left to right: José Rizal, Marcelo H. del Pilar and Mariano Ponce (c. 1890)
    Justiniano Asuncion

    A total of 110 Manila-Acapulco galleons set sail between 1565 and 1815, during the Philippines trade with Mexico. Until 1593, three or more ships would set sail annually from each port bringing with them the riches of the archipelago to Spain. European criollos, mestizos and Portuguese, French and Mexican descent from the Americas, mostly from Latin America came in contact with the Filipinos. Japanese, Indian and Cambodian Christians who fled from religious persecutions and killing fields also settled in the Philippines during the 17th until the 19th centuries. The Mexicans especially were a major source of military migration to the Philippines and during the Spanish period they were referred to as guachinangos[140][141] and they readily intermarried and mixed with native Filipinos. Bernal, the author of the book "Mexico en Filipinas" contends, that they were middlemen, the guachinangos in contrast to the Spanish and criollos, known as Castila, that had positions in power and were isolated, the guachinangos in the meantime, had interacted with the natives of the Philippines, while in contrast, the exchanges between Castila and native were negligent. Following Bernal, these two groups—native Filipinos and the Castila—had been two "mutually unfamiliar castes" that had "no real contact." Between them, he clarifies however, were the Chinese traders and the guachinangos (Mexicans).[140] In the 1600s, Spain deployed thousands of Mexican and Peruvian soldiers across the many cities and presidios of the Philippines.[142]

    Geographic distribution and year of settlement of the Latin-American immigrant soldiers assigned to the Philippines in the 1600s.[142]
    Location 1603 1636 1642 1644 1654 1655 1670 1672
    Manila[142] 900 446 — 407 821 799 708 667
    Fort Santiago[142] — 22 — — 50 — 86 81
    Cavite[142] — 70 — — 89 — 225 211
    Cagayan[142] 46 80 — — — — 155 155
    Calamianes[142]
    		 — — — — — — 73 73
    Caraga[142] — 45 — — — — 81 81
    Cebu[142] 86 50 — — — — 135 135
    Formosa[142] — 180 — — — — — —
    Moluccas[142]
    		 80 480 507 — 389 — — —
    Otón[142] 66 50 — — — — 169 169
    Zamboanga[142] — 210 — — 184 — — —
    Other[142] 255 — — — — — — —
    [142] — — — — — — — —
    Total Reinforcements[142] 1,533 1,633 2,067 2,085 n/a n/a 1,632 1,572

    With the inauguration of the Suez Canal in 1867, Spain opened the Philippines for international trade. European investors such as British, Dutch, German, Portuguese, Russian, Italian and French were among those who settled in the islands as business increased. More Spaniards and Chinese arrived during the next century. Many of these migrants intermarried with local mestizos and assimilated with the indigenous population.

    In the late 1700s to early 1800s, Joaquín Martínez de Zúñiga, an Agustinian Friar, in his Two Volume Book: "Estadismo de las islas Filipinas"[143][144] compiled a census of the Spanish-Philippines based on the tribute counts (Which represented an average family of seven to ten children[145] and two parents, per tribute)[146] and came upon the following statistics:[143]: 539 [144]: 31, 54, 113 

    Data reported for the 1800 as divided by ethnicity and province[143][144]
    Province Native Tributes Spanish Mestizo Tributes All Tributes[a]
    Tondo[143]: 539  14,437-1/2 3,528 27,897-7
    Cavite[143]: 539  5,724-1/2 859 9,132-4
    Laguna[143]: 539  14,392-1/2 336 19,448-6
    Batangas[143]: 539  15,014 451 21,579-7
    Mindoro[143]: 539  3,165 3-1/2 4,000-8
    Bulacan[143]: 539  16,586-1/2 2,007 25,760-5
    Pampanga[143]: 539  16,604-1/2 2,641 27,358-1
    Bataan[143]: 539  3,082 619 5,433
    Zambales[143]: 539  1,136 73 4,389
    Ilocos[144]
    : 31      		44,852-1/2 631 68,856
    Pangasinan[144]: 31  19,836 719-1/2 25,366
    Cagayan[144]: 31  9,888 0 11,244-6
    Camarines[144]
    : 54      		19,686-1/2 154-1/2 24,994
    Albay[144]: 54  12,339 146 16,093
    Tayabas[144]: 54  7,396 12 9,228
    Cebu[144]: 113  28,112-1/2 625 28,863
    Samar[144]: 113  3,042 103 4,060
    Leyte[144]: 113  7,678 37-1/2 10,011
    Caraga[144]: 113  3,497 0 4,977
    Misamis[144]: 113  1,278 0 1,674
    Negros Island[144]
    : 113      		5,741 0 7,176
    Iloilo[144]: 113  29,723 166 37,760
    Capiz[144]: 113  11,459 89 14,867
    Antique[144]: 113  9,228 0 11,620
    Calamianes[144]
    : 113      		2,289 0 3,161
    TOTAL 299,049 13,201 424,992-16

    The Spanish-Filipino population as a proportion of the provinces widely varied; with as high as 19% of the population of Tondo province [143]: 539  (The most populous province and former name of Manila), to Pampanga 13.7%,[143]: 539  Cavite at 13%,[143]: 539  Laguna 2.28%,[143]: 539  Batangas 3%,[143]: 539  Bulacan 10.79%,[143]: 539  Bataan 16.72%,[143]: 539  Ilocos 1.38%,[144]: 31  Pangasinan 3.49%,[144]: 31  Albay 1.16%,[144]: 54  Cebu 2.17%,[144]: 113  Samar 3.27%,[144]: 113  Iloilo 1%,

    Bicol 20%,[147] and Zamboanga 40%.[147]

    Spanish Mestizos
    ), by Jean Mallat de Bassilan, c. 1846

    In the 1860s to 1890s, in the urban areas of the Philippines, especially at Manila, according to burial statistics, as much as 3.3% of the population were pure European Spaniards and the pure Chinese were as high as 9.9%. The Spanish Filipino and Chinese Filipino Mestizo populations also fluctuated. Eventually, many families belonging to the non-native categories from centuries ago beyond the late 19th century diminished because their descendants intermarried enough and were assimilated into and chose to self-identify as Filipinos while forgetting their ancestor's roots

    Spanish Filipino
    background.

    Late modern

    Filipina women in Filipiniana dress, (Manila, 1899).

    After the defeat of Spain during the Spanish–American War in 1898, Filipino general, Emilio Aguinaldo declared independence on June 12 while General Wesley Merritt became the first American governor of the Philippines. On December 10, 1898, the Treaty of Paris formally ended the war, with Spain ceding the Philippines and other colonies to the United States in exchange for $20 million.[152]

    European and Japanese
    settlers in the Philippines, 1900

    Amerasians scattered across the cities of Clark, Angeles City, Manila, and Olongapo.[159]
    In addition, numerous Filipino men enlisted in the US Navy and made careers in it, often settling with their families in the United States. Some of their second- or third-generation families returned to the country.

    Following its independence, the Philippines has seen both small and large-scale immigration into the country, mostly involving American, European, Chinese and Japanese peoples. After World War II, South Asians continued to migrate into the islands, most of which assimilated and avoided the local social stigma instilled by the early Spaniards against them by keeping a low profile or by trying to pass as Spanish mestizos. This was also true for the Arab and Chinese immigrants, many of whom are also post WWII arrivals. More recent migrations into the country by Koreans, Persians, Brazilians and other Southeast Asians have contributed to the enrichment of the country's ethnic landscape, language and culture. Centuries of migration, diaspora, assimilation and cultural diversity made most Filipinos accepting of interracial marriage and multiculturalism.

    Philippine nationality law is currently based upon the principle of jus sanguinis and, therefore, descent from a parent who is a citizen of the Republic of the Philippines is the primary method of acquiring national citizenship. Birth in the Philippines to foreign parents does not in itself confer Philippine citizenship, although RA9139, the Administrative Naturalization Law of 2000, does provide a path for administrative naturalization of certain aliens born in the Philippines. Since many of the above historical groups came to the Philippines before its establishment as an independent state, many have also gained citizenship before the founding of either the First Philippines Republic or Third Republic of the Philippines. For example, many Cold-War-era Chinese migrants who had relatives in the Philippines attain Filipino citizenship for their children through marriage with Chinese Filipino families that trace back to either the late Spanish Colonial Era or American Colonial Era. Likewise, many other modern expatriates from various countries, such as the US, often come to the Philippines to marry with a Filipino citizen, ensuring their future children attain Filipino citizenship and their Filipino spouses ensure property ownership.

    Social classifications

    During the

    Spanish and Chinese were known as "Tornatrás". Meanwhile, the ethnic Chinese migrants (Chinese Filipinos) were historically referred to as "Sangley/es" (from Hokkien Chinese: 生理; Pe̍h-ōe-jī: Sng-lí; lit. 'business'), while the natives of the Philippine islands were usually known by the generic term "Indio/s"[164] (lit. "Indian, native of the East Indies
    ").

    Filipinos of mixed ethnic origins are still referred today as

    Spanish Mestizos) carried more social prestige due to the colonial caste system hierarchy that usually elevated Spanish blood and Christianized natives to the peak, while most descendants of the Mestizo de Sangley (Chinese Mestizo
    ), despite assuming many of the important roles in the economic, social and political life of the nation, would readily assimilate into the fabric of Philippine society or sometimes falsely claim Spanish descent due to this situation.

    Term Definition
    Peninsulares Person of pure Spanish descent born in Spain ("from the Iberian Peninsula").
    Americano Person of Criollo (pure or almost pure Spanish), Castizo (3/4 Spanish, 1/4 Native American) or Mestizo (1/2 Spanish, 1/2 Native American) descent born in Spanish America ("from the Americas").
    Filipinos / Insulares
    		 Person of pure
    Spanish descent born in the Philippines ("from the Philippine Islands
    ").
    Mestizo de Español
         		Person of mixed
    Spanish and native Austronesian
    descent.
    Tornatrás Person of mixed
    Spanish, Chinese and native Austronesian
    descent.
    Mestizo de Sangley Person of mixed Chinese or Japanese descent with native Austronesian descent.
    Mestizo de Bombay Person of mixed Indian and native Austronesian descent.
    Indio (Christianized) Person of pure native Austronesian descent who was Christianized, usually under the Spanish missionaries of the Catholic Church.
    Sangley / Chino (Christianized) Person of pure Chinese descent who was Christianized, usually by the Spanish missionaries of the Catholic Church.
    Indio (Unchristianized) Person of pure native Austronesian descent who was not Christianized.
    Sangley / Chino (Unchristianized) Person of pure Chinese descent who was not Christianized.
    Moro Person of pure
    Islamized
    .
    Negrito Person of pure
    Mamanwa
    , etc.
    Marcelo Azcárraga Palmero
    , the only Spanish prime minister of mestizo (Filipino) descent

    People classified as 'blancos' (whites) were the insulares or "Filipinos" (a person born in the Philippines of pure Spanish descent), peninsulares (a person born in Spain of pure Spanish descent), Español mestizos (a person born in the Philippines of mixed Austronesian and Spanish ancestry) and tornatrás (a person born in the Philippines of mixed Austronesian, Chinese and Spanish ancestry). Manila was racially segregated, with blancos living in the walled city of Intramuros, un-Christianized sangleys in Parían, Christianized sangleys and mestizos de sangley in Binondo and the rest of the 7,000 islands for the indios, with the exception of Cebu and several other Spanish posts. Only mestizos de sangley were allowed to enter Intramuros to work for whites (including mestizos de español) as servants and various occupations needed for the colony. Indio were native Austronesians, but as a legal classification, Indio were those who embraced Roman Catholicism and Austronesians who lived in proximity to the Spanish colonies.[citation needed]

    People who lived outside

    indigenous Austronesians and Negritos who refused to live in towns and took to the hills, all of whom were considered to live outside the social order as Catholicism was a driving force in Spanish colonials everyday life, as well as determining social class in the colony. People of pure Spanish descent living in the Philippines
    who were born in Spanish America were classified as 'americanos'. Mestizos and africanos born in Spanish America living in the Philippines kept their legal classification as such and usually came as indentured servants to the 'americanos'. The Philippine-born children of 'americanos' were classified as 'Ins'. The Philippine-born children of mestizos and Africanos from Spanish America were classified based on patrilineal descent.

    mestiza de sangley
     woman in a photograph by Francisco Van Camp, c. 1875

    The term negrito was coined by the Spaniards based on their appearance. The word 'negrito' would be misinterpreted and used by future European scholars as an ethnoracial term in and of itself. Both Christianized negritos who lived in the colony and un-Christianized negritos who lived in tribes outside the colony were classified as 'negritos'. Christianized negritos who lived in Manila were not allowed to enter Intramuros and lived in areas designated for indios.

    A person of mixed Negrito and Austronesian ancestry were classified based on patrilineal descent; the father's ancestry determined a child's legal classification. If the father was 'negrito' and the mother was 'India' (Austronesian), the child was classified as 'negrito'. If the father was 'indio' and the mother was 'negrita', the child was classified as 'indio'. Persons of Negrito descent were viewed as being outside the social order as they usually lived in tribes outside the colony and resisted conversion to Christianity.

    This legal system of racial classification based on patrilineal descent had no parallel anywhere in the Spanish-ruled colonies in the Americas. In general, a son born of a sangley male and an indio or mestizo de sangley female was classified as mestizo de sangley; all subsequent male descendants were mestizos de sangley regardless of whether they married an India or a mestiza de sangley. A daughter born in such a manner, however, acquired the legal classification of her husband, i.e., she became an India if she married an indio but remained a mestiza de sangley if she married a mestizo de sangley or a sangley. In this way, a chino mestizo male descendant of a paternal sangley ancestor never lost his legal status as a mestizo de sangley no matter how little percentage of Chinese blood he had in his veins or how many generations had passed since his first Chinese ancestor; he was thus a mestizo de sangley in perpetuity.

    However, a 'mestiza de sangley' who married a blanco ('Filipino', 'mestizo de español', 'peninsular' or 'americano') kept her status as 'mestiza de sangley'. But her children were classified as tornatrás. An 'India' who married a blanco also kept her status as India, but her children were classified as mestizo de español. A mestiza de español who married another blanco would keep her status as mestiza, but her status will never change from mestiza de español if she married a mestizo de español, Filipino or peninsular. In contrast, a mestizo (de sangley or español) man's status stayed the same regardless of whom he married. If a mestizo (de sangley or español) married a filipina (woman of pure Spanish descent), she would lose her status as a 'filipina' and would acquire the legal status of her husband and become a mestiza de español or sangley. If a 'filipina' married an 'indio', her legal status would change to 'India', despite being of pure Spanish descent.

    The social stratification system based on class that continues to this day in the country had its beginnings in the

    Spanish colonial area with a discriminating caste system.[166]

    The Spanish colonizers reserved the term Filipino to refer to Spaniards born in the Philippines. The use of the term was later extended to include Spanish and Chinese mestizos or those born of mixed Chinese-indio or Spanish-indio descent. Late in the 19th century, José Rizal popularized the use of the term Filipino to refer to all those born in the Philippines, including the Indios.[167] When ordered to sign the notification of his death sentence, which described him as a Chinese mestizo, Rizal refused. He went to his death saying that he was indio puro.[168][167]

    After the Philippines' independence from Spain in 1898 and the word Filipino 'officially' expanded to include the entire population of the Philippines regardless of racial ancestry, as per the Philippine nationality law and as described by Wenceslao Retaña's Diccionario de filipinismos, where he defined Filipinos as follows,[68]

    todos los nacidos en Filipinas sin distincion de origen ni de raza.
    All those born in the Philippines without distinction of origin or race.

    — Wenceslao E. Retaña, Diccionario De Filipinismos: Con La Revisión De Lo Que Al Respecto Lleva Publicado La Real Academia Española
    • Native Filipinos as illustrated in the Carta Hydrographica y Chorographica de las Yslas Filipinas (1734)
      Native Filipinos as illustrated in the
      Carta Hydrographica y Chorographica de las Yslas Filipinas
       (1734)
    • A Spaniard and Criollo talking, while Indios are cockfight with Aetas in the background. detail from Carta Hydrographica y Chorographica de las Yslas Filipinas.
      A Spaniard and Criollo talking, while Indios are cockfight with Aetas in the background. detail from Carta Hydrographica y Chorographica de las Yslas Filipinas.
    • "Mestizo de luto" (A Native Filipino Mestizo) by José Honorato Lozano
      "Mestizo de luto" (A Native Filipino Mestizo) by José Honorato Lozano
    • Native riding a horse by José Honorato Lozano
      Native riding a horse by José Honorato Lozano
    • Cuadrillero by José Honorato Lozano
      Cuadrillero by José Honorato Lozano
    • A Gobernadorcillo, mostly of Indio descent. Painting by José Honorato Lozano
      A Gobernadorcillo, mostly of Indio descent. Painting by José Honorato Lozano
    • Sangley Pancit vendor by José Honorato Lozano
      Sangley Pancit vendor by José Honorato Lozano
    • Damián Domingo, A mestizo de Sangley soldier and artist.
      Damián Domingo, A mestizo de Sangley soldier and artist.
    • Typical costume of a Principalía family of the late 19th century. Exhibit in the Villa Escudero Museum, San Pablo, Laguna, Philippines.
      Typical costume of a Principalía family of the late 19th century. Exhibit in the Villa Escudero Museum, San Pablo, Laguna, Philippines.

    Origins and genetic studies

    See also: Models of migration to the Philippines, Demographics of the Philippines, and Ethnic groups in the Philippines
    Migration of the Austronesian peoples and their languages.[169]

    The aboriginal settlers of the Philippines were primarily Negrito groups. Negritos today comprise a small minority of the nation's overall population, and received significant geneflow from Austronesian groups, as well as an even earlier "Basal-East Asian" group, while the modern Austronesian-speaking majority population does not, or only marginally show evidence for admixture, and cluster closely with other East/Southeast Asian people.[170][171]

    The majority population of Filipinos are

    Austronesian populations of Taiwan.[174]

    Other hypotheses have also been put forward based on linguistic, archeological, and genetic studies. These include an origin from mainland

    last glacial period (c. 10,000 BC);[177][178] or a combination of the two (the Nusantao Maritime Trading and Communication Network hypothesis) which advocates cultural diffusion rather than a series of linear migrations.[179]

    Genetics

    Main article: Genetic studies on Filipinos

    The results of a massive DNA study conducted by the

    National Geographic's, "The Genographic Project", based on genetic testings of 80,000 Filipino people by the National Geographic in 2008–2009, found that the average Filipino's genes are around 53% Southeast Asia and Oceania, 36% East Asian, 5% Southern European, 3% South Asian and 2% Native American.[180]

    According to a genetic study done by the Kaiser Permanente (KP) Research Program on Genes, Environment, and Health (RPGEH), most self-identified Filipinos sampled, have "modest" amounts of European ancestry consistent with older admixture.[181]

    Dental morphology

    Dental morphology provides clues to prehistoric migration patterns of the Philippines, with Sinodont dental patterns occurring in East Asia, Central Asia, North Asia, and the Americas. Sundadont patterns occur in Southeast Asia as well as the bulk of Oceania.[182] Filipinos exhibit Sundadonty,[182][183] and are regarded as having a more generalised dental morphology and having a longer ancestry than its offspring, Sinodonty.

    Historic reports

    Published in 1849, The Catalogo Alfabetico de Apellidos contains 141 pages of surnames with both Spanish and Hispanicized indigenous roots.

    Authored by Spanish Governor-General Narciso Claveria y Zaldua and Domingo Abella, the catalog was created in response to the Decree of November 21, 1849, which gave every Filipino a surname from the book. The decree in the Philippines was created to fulfill a Spanish colonial decree that sought to address colonial subjects who did not have a last name. This explains why most Filipinos share the same surnames as many Hispanics today, without having Spanish ancestry.

    Augustinian Friar, Joaquín Martínez de Zúñiga, in the 1800s, measured varying ratios of Spanish-Mestizos as percentages of the populations of the various provinces, with ranges such as: 19.5% of the population of Tondo (The most populous province), to Pampanga (13.7%), Cavite (13%) and Bulacan (10.8%) to as low as 5% in Cebu, and non-existent in the isolated provinces.[143][144]

    In relation to this, a population survey conducted by German ethnographer Fedor Jagor concluded that 1/3rd of Luzon which holds half of the Philippines' population had varying degrees of Spanish and Mexican ancestry.[184]

    Current immigration

    Main article: Immigration to the Philippines

    Recent studies during 2015, record around 220,000 to 600,000 American citizens living in the country.[185] There are also 250,000 Amerasians across Angeles City, Manila, Clark and Olongapo.[186]

    Languages

    Main articles: Languages of the Philippines and Philippine languages
    The indigenous (native) Philippine languages spoken around the country that have the largest number of speakers in a particular region with Tagalog being the largest. Note that on regions marked with black diamonds, the language with the most speakers denotes a minority of the population.

    Ilocano
    assimilated many different words and expressions from Castilian Spanish.

    Chavacano is the only Spanish-based creole language in Asia. Its vocabulary is 90 percent Spanish, and the remaining 10 percent is a mixture of predominantly Portuguese, Hiligaynon, and some English. Chavacano is considered by the Instituto Cervantes to be a Spanish-based language.[188][failed verification]

    In sharp contrast, another view is that the ratio of the population which spoke Spanish as their mother tongue in the last decade of Spanish rule was 10% or 14%.[189] An additional 60% is said to have spoken Spanish as a second language until World War II, but this is also disputed as to whether this percentage spoke "kitchen Spanish", which was used as marketplace lingua compared to those who were actual fluent Spanish speakers.[189]

    In 1863 a Spanish decree introduced

    universal education, creating free public schooling in Spanish, yet it was never implemented, even before the advent of American annexation.[190] It was also the language of the Philippine Revolution, and the 1899 Malolos Constitution proclaimed it as the "official language" of the First Philippine Republic, albeit a temporary official language. Spanish continued to be the predominant lingua franca used in the islands by the elite class before and during the American colonial regime. Following the American occupation of the Philippines and the imposition of English
    , the overall use of Spanish declined gradually, especially after the 1940s.

    According to

    Arabic shall be promoted on a voluntary and optional basis.[194]

    Other Philippine languages in the country with at least 1,000,000 native and indigenous speakers include

    Aklanon and Ibanag. The 28-letter modern Filipino alphabet, adopted in 1987, is the official writing system. In addition, each ethnicity's language has their own writing scripts and set of alphabets, many of which are no longer used.[195]

    Religion

    Main article: Religion in the Philippines
    Basilica Minore del Santo Niño
    during the novena Masses.

    According to National Statistics Office (NSO) as of 2010, over 92% of the population were

    Orthodoxy, and the Jehovah's Witnesses
    have a visible presence in the country.

    The second largest religion in the country is Islam, estimated in 2014 to account for 5% to 8% of the population.[198] Islam in the Philippines is mostly concentrated in southwestern Mindanao and the Sulu Archipelago which, though part of the Philippines, are very close to the neighboring Islamic countries of Malaysia and Indonesia. The Muslims call themselves Moros, a Spanish word that refers to the Moors (albeit the two groups have little cultural connection other than Islam).

    Historically, ancient Filipinos held animist religions that were influenced by

    Igorot, and Lumad, having some strong adherents and some who mix beliefs originating from the indigenous religions with beliefs from Christianity or Islam.[199][200]

    As of 2013[update], religious groups together constituting less than five percent of the population included

    United Methodists, the Episcopal Church in the Philippines, Assemblies of God, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons), and Philippine (Southern) Baptists; and the following domestically established churches: Iglesia ni Cristo (Church of Christ), Philippine Independent Church (Aglipayan), Members Church of God International, and The Kingdom of Jesus Christ, the Name Above Every Name. In addition, there are Lumad, who are indigenous peoples of various animistic and syncretic religions.[201]

    Diaspora

    Main article: Overseas Filipinos
    Further information: Filipinos in the New York metropolitan area and Filipinos in Hawaii
    Spectators at the annual Philippine Independence Day Parade on Madison Avenue in Manhattan, New York City

    There are currently more than 10 million Filipinos who live overseas. Filipinos form a minority ethnic group in the Americas, Europe, Oceania,[202][203] the Middle East, and other regions of the world.

    There are an estimated four million

    Americans of Filipino ancestry in the United States, and more than 300,000 American citizens in the Philippines.[204] According to the U.S. Census Bureau, immigrants from the Philippines made up the second largest group after Mexico that sought family reunification.[205]

    Filipinos make up over a third of the entire population of the

    North Pacific Ocean, and a large proportion of the populations of Guam, Palau, the British Indian Ocean Territory, and Sabah.[203][failed verification
    ]

    See also

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    Publications

    External links

    Notes

    1. ^ Including others such as Latin-Americans and Chinese-Mestizos, pure Chinese paid tribute but were not Philippine citizens as they were transients who returned to China, and Spaniards were exempt
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