First Anglo-Sikh war
First Anglo-Sikh war | |||||||||
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Sketch Map to Illustrate the First Anglo-Sikh War from 'A Short History of the Sikhs' (1915), by Charles Herbert Payne | |||||||||
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Belligerents | |||||||||
East India Company Supported by; Patiala State[1]Jind State[2] |
Sikh Empire Supported by; Ladwa State | ||||||||
Commanders and leaders | |||||||||
Maharani Jind Kaur |
The first Anglo-Sikh war was fought between the
Background and causes of the war
The Sikh kingdom of Punjab was expanded and consolidated by Maharajah
Events in the Punjab
Maharaja Ranjit Singh died in 1839. After his death, his kingdom began to fall into disorder. Ranjit's unpopular legitimate son, Kharak Singh, was removed from power within a few months, and later died in prison under mysterious circumstances. It was widely believed that he was poisoned.[4] He was replaced by his able but estranged son Kanwar Nau Nihal Singh, who also died within a few months in suspicious circumstances, after being injured by a falling archway at the Lahore Fort while returning from his father's cremation.[5] At the time, two major factions within the Punjab were contending for power and influence; the Sikh Sindhanwalias and the Hindu Dogras. Sher Singh was crowned Maharaja of the Sikh Empire in January 1841, with Dhian Singh Dogra as his prime minister.[6][7]
The army expanded rapidly in the aftermath of Ranjit Singh's death, from 29,000 (with 192 guns) in 1839 to over 80,000 in 1845[8] as landlords and their retainers took up arms. It proclaimed itself to be the embodiment of the Sikh nation. Its regimental panchayats (committees) formed an alternative power source within the kingdom, declaring that Guru Gobind Singh's ideal of the Sikh commonwealth had been revived, with the Sikhs as a whole assuming all executive, military and civil authority in the state,[9] which British observers decried as a "dangerous military democracy". British representatives and visitors in the Punjab described the regiments as preserving "puritanical" order internally, but also as being in a perpetual state of mutiny or rebellion against the central Durbar (court).
Maharajah Sher Singh was unable to meet the pay demands of the army, although he reportedly lavished funds on a degenerate court. In September 1843 he was murdered by his cousin, an officer of the army, Ajit Singh Sindhanwalia. The Dogras took their revenge on those responsible, and Jind Kaur, Ranjit Singh's youngest widow, became regent for her infant son Duleep Singh. After the vizier Hira Singh was killed, while attempting to flee the capital with loot from the royal treasury (toshkana), by troops under Sham Singh Attariwala,[9] Jind Kaur's brother Jawahar Singh became vizier in December 1844. In 1845 he arranged the assassination of Pashaura Singh, who presented a threat to Duleep Singh. For this, he was called to account by the army. Despite attempts to bribe the army he was butchered in September 1845 in the presence of Jind Kaur and Duleep Singh.[10]
Jind Kaur publicly vowed revenge against her brother's murderers. She remained regent.
British actions
Immediately after the death of Ranjit Singh, the British East India Company had begun increasing its military strength, particularly in the regions adjacent to the Punjab, establishing a military
The actions and attitudes of the British, under
Nevertheless, the unconcealed and seemingly aggressive British military build-up at the borders had the effect of increasing tension within the Punjab and the Sikh Army.
Status of combatants
Khalsa Army
The army under Ranjit Singh had expanded from around 35,000 troops in the 1820s to over 100,000 by 1845. In 1822 Ranjit Singh decided to base his army on the French model and this process was complete by the time of his death in 1839.[12]
The first brigade of the army was the Fauj-i-Khas (Royal Army), which contained 3,176 infantry, 1,667 cavalry and 34 guns. The brigades of the Fauj-i-ain were modelled on that of the Khas and this force had grown from 35,000 in 1838 to 70,000 by 1845 with seven divisions being created in 1844/1845 from the existing troops.[12][13]
The Sikh cavalry, though no longer the preferred branch, remained a well-disciplined force with 6,235 cavalrymen in 1845 with 2 regiments of lancers, 2 of cuirassiers, and 6 dragoon regiments. There was also 22,000 Fauj-i-sowar which consisted of irregular cavalry deemed unsuitable for fighting an organised enemy but well-suited for chasing a routed enemy and conducting guerilla warfare.[12][13]
The artillery was large though unstandardised, increasing from 40 guns in 1808 to 381 by 1845, with an additional 388 swivel guns. Some of the artillery units had been organised and trained by European mercenaries. The British unwisely underestimated the Khalsa's artillery prior to the outbreak of war.[12]
There also existed the Jargirdar Fauj. This compoment of the Khalsa Army was the feudal army provided by the nobility of the state. It numbered 55,000. Gulab Singh's army in particular contained between 12,000 and 17,000 infantry and cavalry as well as 94 guns. Additionally, there were the Nihangs; 1,000 religious warriors who fought primarily as mounted infantry.[12]
Although the leaders and principal units of the army were Sikhs, there were also
An alternative estimate of the troops is given by Singh who states it contained in 1845 on the eve of war 53,576 regular infantry 6,235 regular cavalry, 16,292 irregular cavalry and 10,698 gunners this not including the tens of thousands of Jargirdari Fauj.[13]
British Army
The British army in India at the time generally consisted of three types: the regular units of the British Army (sometimes referred to in India as "Queen's" troops), who were used as the shock formations of the military in India, which in combination with disease resulted in them being almost permanently understrength; the European troops raised by the East India Company, who represented a tiny proportion of the troops present; the native Indian troops (sepoys) who formed the vast majority. 74 battalions of Sepoys in the
Despite an overwhelming superiority in overall numbers the British struggled to assemble an army above 40,000 for the campaign and even at the end of the war fewer than 25,000 soldiers were actively fighting.[17]
The army was commanded by
Outbreak and course of the war
After mutual demands and accusations between the Sikh Durbar and the East India Company, diplomatic relations were broken. An East India Company army began marching towards Ferozepur, where a division was already stationed.
In response to the British move, the Sikh army began crossing the Sutlej on 11 December 1845.[18] The Sikhs claimed they were only moving into Sikh possessions (specifically the village of Moran, whose ownership was disputed) on the east side of the river, but the move was regarded by the British as clearly hostile and they declared war.
Ladwa battles
Battle of Wadni Fort
After Raja Gurdit Singh's[who?] death, his son Ajit Singh succeeded him. Ajit Singh upgraded his fort at Ladwa to face the danger of the British. During the First Sikh war in 1845, he fought on the side of the Sikh army against the British. He was defeated.[when?][citation needed] The Sikh defenders of Wudnee surrendered on 30 December after the Sikh defeat at Ferozeshah prevented the Sikh army reinforcing them.[19]
Battle of Phillaur Fort
This battle was the last fought by the Raja of Ladwa (alt. spelt as "Ladva"), Ajit Singh. The fort was designed by Dewan Mohkam Chand, with the assistance of Ranjit Singh's French and Italian generals. It was constructed as a response to the British, who built
Lahore battles
Battle of Mudki
The battle of Mudki was fought on 18 December 1845.[18] An army under Tej Singh crossed the Sutlej and advanced against the British outpost at Ferozepur, although they did not attempt to attack or surround it. Another force under Lal Singh clashed with Gough's and Hardinge's advancing army at the Battle of Mudki late on 18 December. The British won an untidy encounter battle, suffering heavy casualties.
Battle of Ferozeshah
The battle of Ferozeshah was fought on 21 December 1845.[18]
After the battle of Mudki, Gough's army came in sight of the large Sikh entrenchment at Ferozeshah on 19 December. Gough wished to attack at once, but Hardinge used his position as Governor General to overrule him and order him to wait for the division from Ferozepur to arrive. When they appeared late on 21 December, Gough attacked in the few hours of daylight left. The well-served Sikh artillery caused heavy casualties among the British, and their infantry fought desperately. On the other hand, the elite of the Sikh army, the irregular cavalry or ghodachadas (alt. gorracharra, horse-mounted), were comparatively ineffective against Gough's infantry and cavalry as they had been kept from the battlefield by Lal Singh.
By nightfall, some of Gough's army had fought their way into the Sikh positions, but other units had been driven back in disorder. Hardinge expected a defeat on the following day and ordered the state papers at Mudki to be burned in this event. However, on the following morning, the British and Bengal Army units rallied and drove the Sikhs from the rest of their fortifications. Lal Singh had made no effort to rally or reorganise his army.
At this point, Tej Singh's army appeared. Once again, Gough's exhausted army faced defeat and disaster, but Tej Singh inexplicably withdrew, claiming that British cavalry and artillery which were withdrawing to replenish ammunition were actually making an outflanking move.
Operations temporarily halted, mainly because Gough's army was exhausted and required rest and reinforcements.
Battle of Baddowal
The battle of Budhowal was fought on 21 January 1846.[18] Ranjodh Singh Majithia was the son of Desa Singh Majithia, one of the most able ministers under Maharaja Ranjit Singh. He commanded a large army, (10,000 infantry and some regular cavalry with sixty guns) and crossed the Sutlej in force and was joined by Ajit Singh of Ladwa. They marched towards Ludhiana and burned a portion of the British cantonment. Sir Harry Smith (afterwards Governor of Cape Colony), who was sent to relieve Ludhiana, marched eastwards from Ferozepur, keeping a few miles away from the Sutlej.
On learning of the Sikh strength, and receiving further orders from Gough, Smith instead force-marched his troops via Jagraon, collecting a British regiment there, to reach Ludhiana ahead of the Sikh main body. On 21 January, as he left Baddowal, the Sikh irregular cavalry (the Gorchurras) continually attacked his rearguards. They captured most of Smith's baggage animals (mules, bullocks and elephants), and cut down any straggling troops. Nevertheless, Smith succeeded in reaching Ludhiana, with his troops exhausted. A brigade of troops from Delhi, including two Gurkha battalions, reinforced him.
Battle of Aliwal
The battle of Aliwal was fought on 28 January 1846.[18] After resting his troops, Smith once again advanced to Baddowal. The Sikhs had withdrawn to Aliwal on the Sutlej, awaiting reinforcements. On 28 January, Smith advanced against them, cautiously at first. Finding a weak point in the Sikh position, he won a model victory which eliminated the Sikh bridgehead and captured almost all Ranjur Singh's artillery and his army's baggage and equipment.
Battle of Sobraon
The battle of Sobraon was fought on 10 February 1846.[18] The Sikhs had been temporarily dismayed by their defeats and by their commanders' inaction, but rallied when fresh units and leaders, including Sham Singh Attariwala, joined them, and Maharani Jind Kaur exhorted 500 selected officers to make renewed efforts.
Gough had intended to attack the Sikh army in its entrenchments at Sobraon as soon as Smith's division rejoined from Ludhiana, but Hardinge forced him to wait until a heavy artillery train had arrived. At last, he moved forward early on 10 February. The start of the battle was delayed by heavy fog, but as it lifted, 35 British heavy guns and howitzers opened fire. The Sikh cannon replied. The bombardment went on for two hours without much effect on the Sikh defences. Gough was told that his heavy guns were running short of ammunition and is alleged to have replied, "Thank God! Then I'll be at them with the bayonet."
Two British divisions under Harry Smith and Major General
The British, Gurkhas and Bengal regiments renewed their attacks along the entire front of the entrenchment, and broke through at several points. On the vulnerable Sikh right, engineers blew a breach in the fortifications and British cavalry and horse artillery pushed through it to engage the Sikhs in the centre of their position. Tej Singh had left the battlefield early. It is alleged in many Sikh accounts that he deliberately weakened the pontoon bridge, casting loose the boat at its centre, or that he ordered his own artillery on the west bank to fire on the bridge on the pretext of preventing British pursuit. British accounts claim that the bridge simply broke under the weight of the numbers of soldiers trying to retreat across it, having been weakened by the swollen river. Whichever account is correct, the bridge broke, trapping nearly 20,000 of the Sikh Khalsa Army on the east bank.
None of the trapped Sikh soldiers attempted to surrender. Many detachments, including one led by Sham Singh Attariwala, fought to the death. Some Sikhs rushed forward to attack the British regiments sword in hand; others tried to ford or swim the river. British horse artillery lined the bank of the river and continued to fire into the crowds in the water. By the time the firing ceased, the Sikhs had lost between 8,000 and 10,000 men. The British had also captured 67 guns.
Kangra battles
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Siege of Kangra Fort
This siege was fought from mid-April to 28 May 1846.[18] It was a six-week long siege of the Kangra fortress.[18] Lawrence reached the fort on 3 May 1846.[18] This was the only battle fought between the Sikh forces of Kangra and the British. The British controlled the valley after defeating them and the fort.[18]
Mohali Battles
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Battle of Sohana
Akali Hanuman Singh along with 500 troops were heading for Ghuram when they were attacked near Sohana by the British. The British defeated this force and Hanuman Singh was killed in action at age 90.
Aftermath
In the
The estate of Ladwa, belonging to Ajit Singh who had fought against the British at Buddowal and Aliwal, was confiscated in 1846. "The Raja of Ladwa, with an estate of 10,000 pounds a year, almost openly avowed his treason, and, after a time, went over to the enemy (the British Raj) with all his troops and artillery", reads the Dispatch of the Governor General, sent to London on November 17, 1846. On September 22, 1847, through a ‘sanad’, the British awarded his house at Haridwar to the Raja of Patiala. Ajit Singh was taken into custody and sent as a prisoner to the Allahabad fort. He contrived to escape, after killing his keeper, and after long wanderings in hills, is supposed to have died in Kashmir. His children, who held in joint tenure eight villages along with Bhadour sardars, were dispatched by the British to these villages.
Maharaja Duleep Singh remained ruler of the Punjab and at first his mother, Maharani Jindan Kaur, remained as Regent. However, the Durbar later requested that the British presence remain until the Maharaja attained the age of 16. The British consented to this and on 16 December 1846, the Treaty of Bhyroval provided for the Maharani to be awarded a pension of 150,000 rupees and be replaced by a British resident in Lahore supported by a Council of Regency, with agents in other cities and regions. This effectively gave the East India Company control of the government.
Sikh historians have always maintained that, in order to retain their hold on power and maintain the figurehead rule of Duleep Singh, Lal Singh and Tej Singh embarked on the war with the deliberate intent of breaking their own army. In particular, Lal Singh was corresponding with a British political officer and betraying state and military secrets throughout the war.[16][15][page needed] Lal Singh's and Tej Singh's desertion of their armies and refusal to attack when opportunity offered seem inexplicable otherwise.
The Sikh empire was until then one of the few remaining kingdoms in India after the rise of the
See also
- First Anglo-Sikh War Memorial
References
Citations
- ^ Jolly, Asit (14 January 2012). "Punjab polls 2012: Six clans that control the state". India Today.
- ISBN 9788130700304– via Google Books.
- ^ Allen 2001, p. 28.
- ^ Hernon 2003, p. 546.
- ^ Grewal 1998, p. 120.
- ISBN 978-81-215-0914-5.
- ISBN 978-93-5253-434-0.
- ^ Hernon 2003, p. 547.
- ^ a b c allaboutsikhs.com Archived 18 March 2009 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Hernon 2003, p. 548.
- ^ Farwell 1973, p. 30.
- ^ OCLC 1112367870.)
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link - ^ )
- ^ Cunningham 1853, p. 257.
- ^ a b Sidhu 2010.
- ^ a b Jawandha 2010, p. 64.
- ^ OCLC 1112367870.)
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link - ^ ISBN 9781445650241.
- ISBN 978-1-4456-4195-9.
- ^ "Terms of the Treaty of Amritsar". Archived from the original on 5 January 2009.
Works cited
- ISBN 978-0-349-11456-9.
- Cunningham, Joseph (1853). Cunningham's history of the Sikhs. Retrieved 24 July 2015.
- ISBN 978-1-84022-216-6.
- Featherstone, Donald (2007). At Them with the Bayonet: The First Anglo-Sikh War 1845-1846. Leonnaur Books.
- ISBN 978-0-521-26884-4.
- ISBN 978-0-7509-3162-5.
- Jawandha, Nahar (2010). Glimpses of Sikhism. New Delhi: Sanbun Publishers. ISBN 978-93-80213-25-5.
- Sidhu, Amarpal (2010). The First Anglo-Sikh War. Stroud, Gloucs: Amberley Publishing Limited. ISBN 978-1-84868-983-1.
- ISBN 978-1-4728-3447-8.
External links
- World History Encyclopedia – First Anglo-Sikh War
- First Anglo-Sikh War Archived 9 February 2010 at the Wayback Machine
- Anglo-Sikh Wars