Council of Ephesus
Council of Ephesus | |
---|---|
Date | 431 |
Accepted by | |
Previous council | First Council of Constantinople |
Next council |
Second Council of Ephesus (not accepted by Chalcedonian) |
Convoked by | Emperor Theodosius II |
President | Cyril of Alexandria |
Attendance | 200–250 (papal representatives arrived late) |
Topics | Nestorianism, Theotokos, Pelagianism, Premillennialism |
Documents and statements | Confirmation of the original Nicene Creed, condemnations of heresies, declaration of Mary as "Theotokos", eight canons |
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The Council of Ephesus was a council of Christian bishops convened in
Background
Nestorius' doctrine,
Nestorius' dispute with Cyril had led the latter to seek validation from
Approximately 250
History
Political context
Even within Constantinople, some supported the Roman-Alexandrian and others supported the Nestorian factions. For example, Pulcheria supported the Roman-Alexandrian popes while the emperor and his wife supported Nestorius.[6]
Theological context
Contention over Nestorius' teachings, which he developed during his studies at the
McGuckin ascribes Nestorius' importance to his being the representative of the Antiochene tradition and characterizes him as a "consistent, if none too clear, exponent of the longstanding Antiochene dogmatic tradition." Nestorius was greatly surprised that what he had always taught in Antioch without any controversy whatsoever should prove to be so objectionable to the Christians of Constantinople. Nestorius emphasized the
Nestorius tried to answer a question considered unsolved: "How can Jesus Christ, being part man, not be partially a sinner as well, since man is by definition a sinner since the Fall?" To solve that he taught that
Nestorius believed that no union between the human and divine was possible. If such a union of human and divine occurred, Nestorius believed that Christ could not truly be consubstantial with God and consubstantial with us because he would grow, mature, suffer and die (which Nestorius argued God cannot do) and also would possess the power of God that would separate him from being equal to humans.[citation needed]
According to McGuckin, several mid-twentieth-century accounts have tended to "romanticise" Nestorius; in opposition to this view, he asserts that Nestorius was no less dogmatic and uncompromising than Cyril, and that he was clearly just as prepared to use his political and canonical powers as Cyril or any of the other hierarchs of the period.[7]
Nestorius's opponents charged him with detaching Christ's divinity and humanity into two persons existing in one body, thereby denying the reality of the Incarnation. Eusebius, a layman who later became the bishop of the neighbouring Dorylaeum was the first to accuse Nestorius of heresy, but his most forceful opponent was Patriarch Cyril of Alexandria. Cyril argued that Nestorianism split Jesus in half and denied that he was both human and divine.
Cyril appealed to
For example, John of Antioch wrote to Nestorius urging him to submit to the Pope's judgment and cease stirring up controversy over a word that he disliked (Theotokos) but which could be interpreted as having an orthodox meaning especially in light of the fact that many saints and doctors of the church had sanctioned the word by using it themselves. John wrote to Nestorius, "Don't lose your head. Ten days! It will not take you twenty-four hours to give the needed answer.... Ask advice of men you can trust. Ask them to tell you the facts, not just what they think will please you.... You have the whole of the East against you, as well as Egypt." Despite this advice from his colleagues, Nestorius persisted in maintaining the rightness of his position.
Convocation
On 19 November, Nestorius, anticipating the ultimatum which was about to be delivered, convinced Emperor Theodosius II to summon a general council through which Nestorius hoped to convict Cyril of heresy and thereby vindicate his own teachings. Theodosius issued a Sacra calling for the metropolitan bishops to assemble in the city of Ephesus, which was a special seat for the veneration of Mary, where the theotokos formula was popular. Each bishop was to bring only his more eminent suffragans. The date set by the Emperor for the opening of the council was Pentecost (7 June) 431.[10]
McGuckin notes that the vagueness of the Sacra resulted in wide variations of interpretation by different bishops. In particular, the vastness of John of Antioch's ecclesiastical territory required a lengthy period to notify and gather his delegates. Because the overland trip from Antioch to Ephesus was long and arduous, John composed his delegation of his metropolitan bishops who were restricted to bring no more than two suffragans each. By doing so, he minimized the number who would have to travel to Ephesus. Neither of the emperors attended the council. Theodosius appointed Count Candidian as the head of the imperial palace guard to represent him, to supervise the proceedings of the Council, and to keep good order in the city of Ephesus. Despite Nestorius' agenda of prosecuting Cyril, Theodosius intended for the council to focus strictly on the christological controversy. He thus gave Candidianus strict directions to remain neutral and not to interfere in the theological proceedings. It is generally assumed that Candidian initially maintained his neutrality as instructed by the emperor and only gradually became more biased towards Nestorius. McGuckin, however, suggests that Candidian may have favored Nestorius from the start.[11][12]
Assembly
Celestine sent Arcadius and Projectus, to represent himself and his Roman council; in addition, he sent the Roman priest, Philip, as his personal representative. Cyril Patriarch of Alexandria was president of the council. Celestine had directed the papal legates not to take part in the discussions, but to give judgment on them.[13]
Bishops arrived in Ephesus over a period of several weeks. While waiting for the other bishops to arrive, they engaged in informal discussions characterized as tending to "exasperate rather than heal their differences".[14] The metropolitan of Ephesus, Memnon, was already present with his 52 bishops. Nestorius and his 16 bishops were the first to arrive shortly after Easter. As archbishop of the imperial city of Constantinople, he traveled with a detachment of troops who were under the command of Count Candidian. McGuckin notes that the troops were not there to serve as Nestorius' bodyguard but to support Candidian in his role as the emperor's representative. However, McGuckin theorizes that Candidian's progressive abandonment of neutrality in favor of Nestorius may have created the perception that Candidian's troops were, in fact, there to support Nestorius.[15] Candidian ordered all monks and lay strangers to leave the city; he further instructed the bishops not to leave on any pretext until the council was concluded.[14] Several sources comment that the purpose of this injunction was to prevent bishops from leaving the council to appeal to the emperor directly.[16]
According to McGuckin, Memnon, as bishop of Ephesus, commanded the "fervent and unquestioned loyalty" of the local populace and thus could count on the support of local factions to counterbalance the military might of Candidian's troops.[17] In view of the verdict of Rome against Nestorius, Memnon refused to have communion with Nestorius, closing the churches of Ephesus to him.[18]
Cyril brought with him 50 bishops, arriving only a few days before Pentecost.[19] There were very few bishops representing the West, as the papal representatives would not arrive until July.[20] The Palestinian delegation of 16 bishops and Metropolitan Flavian of Philippi arrived 5 days after the date that had been set for opening the council, and aligned themselves with Cyril.[20]
At this point, Cyril announced his intention to open the council; however, Candidian enjoined him from doing so on the grounds that the Roman and Antiochean delegations had not arrived yet.[9] Cyril initially acceded to Candidian's injunction knowing that he could not legally convene a council without the official reading of the Emperor's Sacra.[21]
A number of bishops, who were undecided between Nestorius and Cyril, did not want to give Cyril, as one party in the dispute, the right to chair the meeting and decide the agenda;[22] however, they began to take Cyril's side for various reasons.[23]
Various circumstances including a detour necessitated by flooding as well as sickness and death of some of the delegates seriously delayed John of Antioch and his bishops.[24] It was rumored that John might be delaying his arrival in order to avoid participating in a council which was likely to condemn Nestorius as a heretic.[13]
First session – 22 June 431
Two weeks after the date set for the council, John and the bulk of his Syrian group (42 members) had not yet appeared. At this point, Cyril formally opened the council on Monday, 22 June by enthroning the Gospels in the centre of the church, as a symbol of Christ's presence among the assembled bishops.[25]
Despite three separate summons, Nestorius refused to acknowledge Cyril's authority to stand in judgment of him and considered the opening of the council before the arrival of the Antiochene contingent as a "flagrant injustice".[9][13] The 68 bishops who opposed opening the council entered the church in protest, arriving with Count Candidian who declared that the assembly was illegal and must disperse.[26] He urged Cyril to wait four more days for the Syrian delegation to arrive.[27] However, since even the bishops opposed to opening the council were now present, Cyril maneuvered Candidian by means of a ruse to read out the text of the Emperor's decree of convocation, which the assembly then acclaimed as recognition of its own legality.[28]
Arrival of the Antiochene delegation
When
Second Session – 10 July 431
The second session was held in Memnon's episcopal residence. Philip, as papal legate, opened the proceedings by commenting that the present question regarding Nestorius had already been decided by Pope Celestine as evidenced by his letter, which had been read to the assembled bishops in the first session. He indicated that he had a second letter from Celestine which was read to the bishops now in attendance. The letter contained a general exhortation to the council, and concluded by saying that the legates had instructions to carry out what the pope had decided on the question and expressed Celestine's confidence that the council would agree. The bishops indicated their approval by acclaiming Celestine and Cyril. Projectus indicated that the papal letter enjoined the council to put into effect the sentence pronounced by Celestine. Firmus, the Exarch of Caesarea in Cappadocia, responded that the pope's sentence had already been carried out in the first session. The session closed with the reading of the pope's letter to the emperor.[13]
Third Session – 11 July 431
Having read the Acts of the first session, the papal legates indicated that all that was required was that the council's condemnation of Nestorius be formally read in their presence. When this had been done, the three legates each confirmed the council's actions, signing the Acts of all three sessions. The council sent a letter to Theodosius indicating that the condemnation of Nestorius had been agreed upon not only by the bishops of the East meeting in Ephesus but also of the bishops of the West who had convened at a synod in Rome convened by Celestine. The bishops asked Theodosius to allow them to go home since so many of them suffered from their presence at Ephesus.[13]
Fourth Session – 16 July 431
At the fourth session, Cyril and Memnon presented a formal protest against John of Antioch for convening a separate conciliabulum. The council issued a summons for him to appear before them, but he would not even receive the envoys who were sent to serve him the summons.[13]
Fifth Session – 17 July 431
Next day the fifth session was held in the same church. John had set up a placard in the city accusing the synod of the Apollinarian heresy. He was again cited, and this was counted as the third canonical summons. He paid no attention. In consequence the council suspended and excommunicated him, together with thirty-four bishops of his party, but refrained from deposing them. Some of John's party had already deserted him, and he had gained only a few. In the letters to the emperor and the pope which were then dispatched, the synod described itself as now consisting of 210 bishops. The long letter to Celestine gave a full account of the council, and mentioned that the pope's decrees against the Pelagians had been read and confirmed.[13]
Sixth Session – 22 July 431
At this session, the bishops approved Canon 7 which condemned any departure from the creed established by the First Council of Nicaea, in particular an exposition by the priest Charisius. According to a report from Cyril to Celestine, Juvenal of Jerusalem tried and failed to create for himself a patriarchate from the territory of the Antiochene patriarchate in which his see lay. He ultimately succeeded in this goal twenty years later at the Council of Chalcedon.[13]
Seventh Session – 31 July 431
At this session, the council approved the claim of the bishops of Cyprus that their see had been anciently and rightly exempt from the jurisdiction of Antioch. The council also passed five canons condemning Nestorius and Caelestius and their followers as heretics and a sixth one decreeing deposition from clerical office or excommunication for those who did not accept the Council's decrees.
Canons and declarations
Eight canons were passed:
- Canon 1–5 condemned Nestorius and Caelestius and their followers as heretics
- Canon 6 decreed deposition from clerical office or excommunication for those who did not accept the Council's decrees
- Canon 7 condemned any departure from the creed established by the First Council of Nicaea (325), in particular an exposition by the priest Charisius.
- Canon 8 condemned interference by the Bishop of Antioch in affairs of the Church in Cyprus and decreed generally, that no bishop was to "assume control of any province which has not heretofore, from the very beginning, been under his own hand or that of his predecessors […] lest the Canons of the Fathers be transgressed".[2]
The Council denounced Nestorius' teaching as erroneous and decreed that Jesus was one person (
The Council declared it "unlawful for any man to bring forward, or to write, or to compose a different (ἑτέραν) Faith as a rival to that established by the holy Fathers assembled with the Holy Ghost in Nicæa".[2] It quoted the Nicene Creed as adopted by the First Council of Nicaea in 325, not as added to and modified by the First Council of Constantinople in 381.[31][32][33][34]
Although some scholars, such as Norman Cohn and Peter Toon, have suggested that the Council of Ephesus rejected premillennialism, this is a misconception, and there is no evidence of the Council making any such declaration.[35][36]
Confirmation of the Council's acts
The bishops at Cyril's council outnumbered those at John of Antioch's council by nearly four to one. In addition, they had the agreement of the papal legates and the support of the population of Ephesus who supported their bishop, Memnon.
However, Count Candidian and his troops supported Nestorius as did Count Irenaeus. The emperor had always been a firm supporter of Nestorius, but had been somewhat shaken by the reports of the council. Cyril's group was unable to communicate with the emperor because of interference from supporters of Nestorius both at Constantinople and at Ephesus. Ultimately, a messenger disguised as a beggar was able to carry a letter to Constantinople by hiding it in a hollow cane.
Although Emperor Theodosius had long been a staunch supporter of Nestorius, his loyalty seems to have been shaken by the reports from Cyril's council and caused him to arrive at the extraordinary decision to ratify the depositions decreed by both councils. Thus, he declared that Cyril, Memnon, and John were all deposed. Memnon and Cyril were kept in close confinement. But in spite of all the efforts of the Antiochene party, the representatives of the envoys whom the council was eventually allowed to send, with the legate Philip, to the Court, persuaded the emperor to accept Cyril's council as the true one. Seeing the writing on the wall and anticipating his fate, Nestorius requested permission to retire to his former monastery. The synod was dissolved in the beginning of October, and Cyril arrived amid much joy at Alexandria on 30 October. Pope Celestine had died on 27 July but his successor,
Aftermath
The events created a major
Persia had long been home to a Christian community that had been persecuted by the
Conciliation
In 1994, the
See also
- Marian devotions
- Second Council of Nicaea (787), last of the 7 ecumenical councils; affirmed a three-level hierarchy of worship that apply to God, the Virgin Mary, and then to the other saints
References
- ISBN 978-0-684-18275-9.
- ^ a b c [clarification needed]
- Schaff, Philip; Wace, Henry, eds. (1996) [1890], A select library of Nicene and post-Nicene fathers of the Christian church, Second series, vol. VII, ISBN 0-8028-8121-1– via Internet Archive
- Schaff, Philip; Wace, Henry, eds. (1890–1900), A select library of Nicene and post-Nicene fathers of the Christian church, Second Series, vol. 14, The Seven Ecumenical Councils, New York: Christian Literature Co. – via Internet Archive
- Schaff, Philip; Wace, Henry, eds. (1890), "Early Church Fathers: Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers", The Tertullian Project, II
- Schaff, Philip; Wace, Henry, eds. (1996) [1890], A select library of Nicene and post-Nicene fathers of the Christian church, Second series, vol. VII,
- ^ Carl E. Braaten and Robert W. Jenson (2004), Mary, Mother of God
- ^ McGuckin, p. 12
- ^ McGuckin, pp. 19–21
- ^ Gabra, Gawdat (2009). The A to Z of the Coptic Church. Scarecrow Press. p. 97.
- ^ McGuckin, p. 21
- ^ McGuckin, pp. 22–23
- ^ ISBN 9780814657034.
- ^ McGuckin, pp. 53–54
- ^ McGuckin, p. 53
- ^ "Saint Cyril of Alexandria and the Council of Ephesus". Retrieved 2011-09-25.
- ^ a b c d e f g h "Council of Ephesus". Catholic Encyclopedia.
- ^ a b Robertson, John Craigie (1854). History of the Christian Church. John Murray. p. 405. Retrieved 9 November 2015.
- ^ McGuckin, p. 54
- ^ Headlam, Arthur Cayley, ed. (1892), "The Council of Ephesus", The Church Quarterly Review, vol. 33, Spottiswoode, p. 103 – via Google books
- ^ McGuckin, p. 55
- ^ McGuckin, pp. 57–58
- ^ McGuckin, pp. 54–56
- ^ a b McGuckin, p. 57
- ^ McGuckin, p. 78; Nonetheless he must have been acutely aware that he could claim no legal status for his synod under imperial law until the official reading of the Emperor's Sacra had taken place.
- ^ McGuckin, p. 60
- ^ McGuckin, pp. 60–65
- ^ McGuckin, pp. 58–59
- ^ McGuckin, p. 77
- ^ McGuckin, pp. 77–78
- ^ Gibbon. The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. p. 115.
- ^ McGuckin, p. 79; When Candidian finished reading the Sacra he surely realised the full extent of his mistake. The Bishops acclaimed long life to the Emperor in demonstrative professions of loyalty, but now with the text officially declaimed in the symbolic presence of the whole Episcopal gathering the Synod of Ephesus was in formal session, legally as well as canonically sanctioned.
- ^ McGuckin, p. 59
- ISBN 978-0-486-20398-0. Retrieved 8 October 2011.
- ^ "Extracts from the Acts of the Council of Ephesus, The Epistle of Cyril to Nestorius".
- ISBN 978-0-415-40903-2), p. 140
- ISBN 978-1-4443-9254-8), p. 166
- ISBN 978-1-4179-1060-1), p. 383
- ^ Svigel, Michael J. (2003). "The Phantom Heresy: Did the Council of Ephesus (431) Condemn Chiliasm?". Trinity Journal. 24. Retrieved 30 May 2020.
- ^ Gumerlock, Francis X. (2004). "Millennialism and the Early Church Councils: Was Chiliasm Condemned at Constantinople?" (PDF). Fides et Historia. 36: 83–95. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2015-05-08. Retrieved 30 May 2020.
- ^ "Nestorian". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved January 28, 2010.
- ^ Common Christological Declaration between the Catholic Church and the Assyrian Church of the East, Vatican Archived January 4, 2009, at the Wayback Machine
Sources
- ISBN 978-1-10743298-7.
- ISBN 978-0-66422301-4.
- ISBN 978-900431290-6.
- Loon, Hans van (2009). The Dyophysite Christology of Cyril of Alexandria. Leiden-Boston: Brill. ISBN 978-900417322-4.
- ISBN 978-1-10745076-9.
- ISBN 978-0-88141056-3.
- Norris, Richard A., ed. (1980). The Christological Controversy. Minneapolis: Fortess Press. ISBN 978-0-80061411-9.
- Pásztori-Kupán, István (2006). Theodoret of Cyrus. London & New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-13439176-9.
- Seleznyov, Nikolai N. (2010). "Nestorius of Constantinople: Condemnation, Suppression, Veneration: With special reference to the role of his name in East-Syriac Christianity". Journal of Eastern Christian Studies. 62 (3–4): 165–90.
- Wessel, Susan (2004). Cyril of Alexandria and the Nestorian Controversy: The Making of a Saint and of a Heretic. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-926846-7.