First secessio plebis
The first secessio plebis was a significant event in
The secession was initially sparked by discontent about the burden of debt on the poorer plebeian class. The failure of the patrician rulers, including the
Ultimately, a reconciliation was negotiated and the plebs were given political representation by the creation of the office of the tribune of the plebs.
Background
The last
At this time, the consuls were elected from amongst the patricians, who were the upper class in Rome. Likewise the Senate was composed only of patricians. The consuls and the senate together exercised the executive and majority of the legislative functions in Rome. The patricians therefore possessed most of the political powers, and were also generally wealthier. The plebeians on the other hand were the majority of the population, and also made up the majority of soldiers serving in the Roman army.
Prelude
In 495 BC, shortly after the significant Roman victory over the
Upon the army's return from war, the people of Rome began to complain about the terrors to which they were subject on account of debt. Debtors, they complained, were being imprisoned and beaten by certain money-lenders. Roman historian
The consuls Servilius and Appius Claudius Sabinus Regillensis attended the Forum, and the people demanded that the Senate be convened. However, so many senators refused to attend out of fear that there were too few of them to come to any decision. The people became suspicious that their demands were being stymied, and violence was so close to breaking out that the senators felt compelled to act, and they eventually convened in the Senate house. Nevertheless the Senate remained struck by indecision. One of the consuls, Appius, because of his harsh temper, called for the uprising to be quelled by the authority of the consuls. The other consul, Servilius, who was of a more mild disposition, called for some concession to be granted to the populace to convince them to retire from the Forum.[4]
First interlude
A number of foreign disturbances now intervened. Some Latin horsemen arrived in Rome to announce that a Volscian army had
There were further military engagements against the
Tensions increase
The troops returned to Rome, and the people anticipated the consuls and the Senate taking steps to address the popular concerns relating to debt. However, the situation was inflamed by the consul Appius who acted contrary to popular expectations by issuing severe decrees regarding debt, with the effect that debtors who had previously been released from imprisonment were delivered back to their creditors, and further persons were taken into custody. A soldier to whom the new decree applied made appeals to the other consul Servilius, and a crowd gathered to remind Servilius of his previous promises, and also of the people's service in war, and called upon him to bring the matter before the Senate. But the mood of the patricians was in favour of the approach of Appius, and so Servilius was left in a position where he could take no steps to intervene on behalf of the people, and earned the disfavour of both factions as a result: the senators thought him weak and a populist, whereas the people thought he had betrayed their trust.[7]
Meanwhile the consuls were unable to decide upon which of them should dedicate a new temple to Mercury. The Senate referred the decision to the popular assembly, and also decreed that whichever consul was chosen should also exercise additional duties, including presiding over the markets, establishing a merchants' guild, and exercising the functions of the pontifex maximus. The people, in order to spite the Senate and the consuls, instead awarded the honour to the senior military officer of one of the legions named Marcus Laetorius.[7]
The Senate was outraged at this turn of events, as was one of the consuls in particular. However, the people were not restrained. Upon seeing a debtor being led to the courts, a mob formed and violence erupted. The crowd protected the debtors and turned instead upon the creditors. The consul's decrees were barely heard, and ignored, and the creditors were harassed within sight of one of the consuls.[7]
Hostilities with the Sabines now led to a decree from the Senate for enrolment of the army levies. However, the decree was ignored, and nobody enlisted. Appius was incensed. He blamed Servilius and said that Servilius, by his silence had betrayed the Republic by failing to pass sentence upon the debtors and to enrol the army levies. Appius vowed that by himself he would uphold the Republic, and the dignity of his office and of the Senate. He sought to intervene by ordering the arrest of one of the ringleaders of the sedition. The
Beginning in March 494 BC, the elected consuls were
The consuls therefore ascended the rostra, and summoned young men by name to enlist. None responded. Instead, a crowd of the people gathered, and told the consul that nobody would do so until the public rights and liberties were restored. The consuls were at a loss, and fearing some great disturbance if the issue were pressed, instead returned to the Senate for further guidance.[8] Upon their return, the younger senators were highly critical of the consuls for what they said was a lack of courage, and called on them to resign. But the consuls told the Senate that the disturbances were more serious and more advanced than the Senate realised, and invited the senators to attend the forum to observe the difficulties faced by the consuls in enrolling the levies. The consuls, accompanied by some senators, then returned to the rostra, and again called for the enlistment of one man who, the consuls knew, was most unwilling to agree. The man, surrounded by his supporters, did not respond. The consuls sent a lictor to seize the man, but the man's supporters threw the lictor back. The senators, shocked at this, tried to help, but were also pushed away, and a greater disturbance was only averted by the timely intervention of the consuls.[8][9]
The Senate was then recalled. Those senators who had been involved in the incident called for a criminal inquiry, and there was a great deal of tumult and shouting particularly amongst the most extreme elements of the Senate. The consuls upbraided them for being as unruly as the people in the forum, and a vote was held. Three propositions were considered. The consul of the previous year, Appius Claudius, said that the people's licentiousness and lack of fear of the consequences of their behaviour came from their right of appeal to the popular assembly. He called for the appointment of a dictator from whom no appeal could be made. On the other hand Titus Larcius advocated that measures should be put in place for the relief of the debt issues which had given rise to the people's complaints. As a middle ground, another senator Publius Virginius (it is unclear whether he was related to the consul) proposed that the relief suggested by Larcius should only be extended to those persons who served in the army in the recent wars against the Aurunci and the Sabines. The suggestion of Appius was supported by a majority, and although Appius himself was almost chosen as dictator, instead the Senate chose a man of more moderate temper, Manius Valerius Maximus.[9][10]
Valerius was the brother of
Second interlude
Shortly after his appointment, with the threat of war looming from a number of foreign enemies, the Aequi, Sabines and the Volsci, Valerius issued an edict in relation to debt which was in effect similar to that which had been issued by Servilius in the previous year, and the people were convinced to enlist in the army. Ten legions were raised, a greater number than had ever been raised previously. Three were assigned to each of the consuls, and the dictator took four legions to deal with the greatest threat which was posed by the Sabines.[10]
The consul Verginius led his legions against the Volsci. He
Climax and secession
The armies returned to Rome. The dictator, determined to deal with the outstanding problem of debt, asked the Senate to address the problem, but the Senate refused. The dictator, frustrated, then harangued the Senate for its obstinacy and its opposition to concord. He refused to remain dictator whilst the Senate refused to act, and therefore resigned from office. As he returned to his home, the people applauded him for his efforts.[11]
The Senate was then compelled by fear of further sedition to take some action. Accordingly, on the pretext of some renewed hostilities by the Aequi, the Senate ordered the legions to be led out of the city. The people were outraged by this turn of events. In order to avoid their military oath, the people contemplated murdering the consuls, however it was observed that a criminal act could not absolve them of their oath which was holy in its nature.[12]
One plebeian,
Reconciliation and reform
The Senate, fearing what might come next, was finally spurred to negotiate with the plebeians. They sent the former consul
When he arrived, Menenius told the plebeians a fable about the necessity of all the parts of the body to work together, because all parts depend upon each other for their own success and survival. This impressed upon them the importance of each part of the Roman Republic to each other part, and the need for a reconciliation.[12] At the request of Menenius the plebeians sent three envoys to conclude a treaty with the Senate; Marcus Decius, Spurius Icilius and Lucius Junius Brutus.[13]
The resolution that was agreed to provided for the appointment of a new class of magistrates, called
Other traditions ascribe the Senate sending a group of ten envoys, all consular with the exception of one, to negotiate with the plebeians. This group is sometimes described as led by Menenius or in some accounts by the former dictator
Aftermath
Livy reports that there was famine in Rome in 492 BC, which came about because the plebeian farmers had not sown their crops during the secession. The consuls arranged for the import of grain from
Bibliography
- Ab urbe condita, Book 2
References
- ISBN 978-1-60384-058-3.
- ^ Edward Greswell (1854). Origines Kalendariæ Italicæ: Nundinal Calendars of Ancient Italy, Nundinal Calendar of Romulus, Calendar of Numa Pompilius, Calendar of Thedecemvirs, Irregular Roman Calendar, and Julian Correction. Tables of the Roman Calendar, from U.C. 4 of Varro B.C. 750 to U.C. 1108 A.D. 355. University Press. pp. 190–.
- ^ Livy, 2.22
- ^ a b c Livy, 2.23
- ^ Livy, 2.24-25
- ^ Livy, 2.26
- ^ a b c d Livy, 2.27
- ^ a b c Livy, 2.28
- ^ a b Livy, 2.29
- ^ a b c d e Livy, 2.30
- ^ a b c d Livy, 2.31
- ^ a b c d e Livy, 2.32
- ^ Broughton, vol i, pp. 15-16. Dionysius of Halicarnassus vi.88.4
- ^ Livy, 2.33
- ^ Broughton, vol i, pp.15-16. Dionysius of Halicarnassus 6.69.3 & 81.1-82.1
- ^ Livy, 2.34