Flamethrower
A flamethrower is a
Most military flamethrowers use liquid fuel, typically either heated oil or diesel, but commercial flamethrowers are generally blowtorches using gaseous fuels such as propane; gases are safer in peacetime applications, because their flames have less mass flow rate and dissipate faster, and often are easier to extinguish when necessary.
Apart from the military applications, flamethrowers have peacetime applications where there is a need for
Military use
Modern flamethrowers were first used during the trench warfare conditions of World War I and their use greatly increased in World War II. They can be vehicle-mounted, as on a tank, or man-portable.
The man-portable flamethrower consists of two elements—the backpack and the gun. The backpack element usually consists of two or three cylinders. In a two-cylinder system, one cylinder holds compressed, inert propellant gas (usually
Flamethrowers were primarily used against battlefield fortifications,
Flamethrowers pose many risks to the operator. The first disadvantage is the weapon's weight and length, which impairs the soldier's mobility. The weapon is limited to only a few seconds of burn time, since it uses fuel very quickly, requiring the operator to be precise and conservative. Flamethrowers using a fougasse-style explosive propellant system also have a limited number of shots. The weapon is very visible on the battlefield, which causes operators to become immediately singled out as prominent targets, especially for
The flamethrower's effective range is short in comparison with that of other battlefield weapons of similar size. To be effective, flamethrower soldiers must approach their target, risking exposure to enemy fire. Vehicular flamethrowers also have this problem; they may have considerably greater range than a man-portable flamethrower, but their range is still short compared with that of other infantry weapons.
The risk of a flamethrower operator being caught in the explosion of their weapon due to enemy hits on the tanks is exaggerated in films.
The pressurizer is filled with a non-flammable gas that is under high pressure. If this tank ruptures, it might knock the operator forward as it was expended in the same way a pressurized
The best way to minimize the disadvantages of flame weapons was to mount them on armoured vehicles. The Commonwealth and the United States were the most prolific users of vehicle-mounted flame weapons; the British and Canadians fielded "Wasps" (Universal Carriers fitted with flamethrowers) at infantry battalion level, beginning in mid-1944, and eventually incorporating them into infantry battalions. Early tank-mounted flamethrower vehicles included the "Badger" (a converted Ram tank) and the "Oke", used first at Dieppe.[2]
Operation
A propane-operated flamethrower is a straightforward device. The gas is expelled through the gun assembly by its own pressure and is ignited at the exit of the barrel through piezo ignition.
Liquid-operated flamethrowers use a smaller tank with a pressurized gas to expel the flammable liquid fuel. The propellant gas is fed to two tubes. The first opens in the fuel tanks providing the pressure necessary for expelling the liquid.[4] The other tube leads to an ignition chamber behind the exit of the gun assembly, where it is mixed with air and ignited through piezo ignition. This pre-ignition line is the source of the flame seen in front of the gun assembly in movies and documentaries. As the fuel passes through the flame, it is ignited and propelled towards the target.
History
Ancient Greece
The concept of projecting fire as a weapon has existed since ancient times. During the
Roman Empire
In 107 AD the Romans used a flamethrower against the Dacians; the device was similar to the one used at Delium.[6]
Later, during the
China
The
Islamic World
Abū ʿAbdallāh al-Khwārazmī in Mafātīḥ al-ʿUlūm (“Keys to the Sciences”) ca. 976 AD mentions the bāb al-midfa and the bāb al-mustaq which he said were parts of naphtha-throwers and projectors (al-naffātāt wa al-zarāqāt). Book of Ingenious Mechanical Device (Kitāb fī ma 'rifat al-ḥiyal al-handasiyya) of 1206 by
18th century
In 1702, the Prussian Army tested P. Lange's "serpent-fire-spray'' (Schlangen-Brand-Spritze) who produced a jet of fire 4 metres (12 ft) wide and 40 m (120 ft) long; two years later it was rejected as useless.[21]
Peter the Great's chief engineer Vasily Dmitrievich Korchmin designed various incendiary weapons.such as incendiary rockets and furnaces for heating cannonball; two Russian ships the “Svyatoy Yakov” and “Landsou” were armed with flamethrower tubes designed by him. He also developed instructions for their use together with the Tsar.[22]
In the 1750s a French engineer named Dupre, developed a new flammable mixture; it was tested in LeHavre and set fire to a sloop. During the British shelling of LeHavre in 1759, the French War Minister tried to obtain authorization to use this fuel.[21]
19th century
Although flamethrowers were never used in the American Civil War, "Greek Fire" shells were produced and used by Union troops during the Second Battle of Charleston Harbor,[23][24]
During the 1871 siege of Paris, French chemist Marcellin Berthelot suggested pumping flaming petroleum at Prussian troops.[21]
In 1898 Russian captain Sigern-Korn experimented with burning jets of kerosene for defensive use; in theory in they would be fired from parapets of fortifications. The idea was abandoned due to technical issues[25]
Early 20th century
During the siege of Port Arthur, Japanese combat engineers used hand pumps to spray kerosene into Russian trenches. Once the Russians were covered with the flammable liquid, the Japanese would throw bundles of burning rags at them.[26]
Before WW1 German pioneers used the Brandröhre M.95 a weapon consisting of a sheet metal tube (125 mm (4.9 in) wide and 1.2 m (3.9 ft) long) filled with an incendiary mixture, and a friction igniter activated by a lanyard. The Brandröhre was designed to be used against enemy casemates; a long pole was used to reach the target and the lanyard was pulled to ignite the fuel; producing a 2-metre (7 ft) long stream of fire. Those weapons were deployed in six-man teams and were limited by their short range. In theory the Brandröhre was replaced by the flamethrower in 1909 but it was still in use in WW1; it was used during the assaults on Fort du Camp-des-Romains in 1914 and Fort Vaux in 1916.[27][28]
Bernhard Reddeman, a German military officer and former fireman, converted steam powered fire engines into flamethrowers; his design was demonstrated in 1907.[27][29]
The English word flamethrower is a
It was not until 1911 that the German Army accepted their first real flamethrowing device, creating a specialist regiment of twelve companies equipped with Flammenwerfer Apparent.[30] Despite this, use of fire in a World War I battle predated flamethrower use, with a petrol spray being ignited by an incendiary bomb in the Argonne-Meuse sector in October 1914.[31]
The flamethrower was first used in World War I on 26 February 1915 when it was briefly used against the French outside Verdun.
The success of the attack prompted the German Army to adopt the device on all fronts. Flamethrowers were used in squads of six during battles, at the start of an attack destroying the enemy and to the preceding the infantry advance.[33]
The flamethrower was useful at short distances[33] but had other limitations: it was cumbersome and difficult to operate and could only be safely fired from a trench, which limited its use to areas where the opposing trenches were less than the maximum range of the weapon, namely 18 m (20 yd) apart—which was not a common situation; the fuel would also only last for about a minute of continuous firing.[31]
The German deployed flamethrowers during the war in more than 650 attacks.[33]
The Ottoman Empire received 30 flamethrowers from Germany during the war.[34][35]
German flamethrowers were also used by Bulgarian forces.[34]
Austria-Hungary adopted German designs; but also developed its own flamethrowers in 1915. Such as the 50l M.15 Flammenwerfer; which required a crew of three men and was too unwieldy for offensive use; a defensive 200 litres (53 US gal) model and a more portable 22 litres (5.8 US gal) model were also produced. Austro Hungarian flamethrowers were unreliable and long hoses were used to prevent the shooter from igniting the fuel tank[34][36]
The British experimented with flamethrowers in the Battle of the Somme, during which they used experimental weapons called "Livens Large Gallery Flame Projectors", named for their inventor, William Howard Livens, a Royal Engineers officer.[37] This weapon was enormous and completely non-portable. The weapon had an effective range of 80 metres (90 yd), which proved effective at clearing trenches, but with no other benefit the project was abandoned.[33]
Two Morriss static flamethrowers were mounted in HMS Vindictive and several Hay portable flamethrowers were deployed by the Royal Navy during the Zeebrugge Raid on 23 April 1918. A British newspaper report of the action referred to the British flamethrowers only as flammenwerfer, using the German word.[38]
The French Army deployed the Schilt family of flamethrowers, which were also used by the Italian Army.[39]
In 1931 the São Paulo Public Force created an assault car section. The first vehicle to be incorporated was a tank built from a Caterpillar Twenty Two tractor, featuring a turret mounted flamethrower and four Hotchkiss machineguns on the hull. It was used in combat during the Constitutionalist Revolution, routing federal troop from a bridge in an engagement in Cruzeiro.[40]
In the interwar period, at least four flamethrowers were used in the Chaco War by the Bolivian Army, during the unsuccessful assault on the Paraguayan stronghold of Nanawa in 1933.[41] During the battle of Kilometer 7 to Saavedra, Major Walther Kohn rode in a flamethrower equipped tankette; due to heat he exited the tank to fight on foot and was killed in combat.[42]
World War II
The flamethrower was used extensively during
Axis use
Germany
-
A German soldier operating a flamethrower in 1944
-
A German soldier using a flamethrower in Russia
-
Belgian soldier wounded by a flamethrower (World War I)
The Germans made considerable use of the weapon (Flammenwerfer 35) during their invasion of the Netherlands and France, against fixed fortifications. World War II German army flamethrowers tended to have one large fuel tank with the pressurizer tank fastened to its back or side. Some German army flamethrowers occupied only the lower part of its wearer's back, leaving the upper part of his back free for an ordinary rucksack.
Flamethrowers soon fell into disfavour. Flamethrowers were extensively used by German units in urban fights in Poland, both in 1943 in the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising and in 1944 in the Warsaw Uprising (see the Stroop Report and the article on the 1943 Warsaw Ghetto Uprising). With the contraction of the Third Reich during the latter half of World War II, a smaller, more compact flamethrower known as the Einstossflammenwerfer 46 was produced.
Germany also used flamethrower vehicles, most of them based on the chassis of the
The Germans also produced the Abwehrflammenwerfer 42, a flame-mine or flame fougasse, based on a Soviet version of the weapon.[43] This was essentially a disposable, single use flamethrower that was buried alongside conventional land mines at key defensive points and triggered by either a trip-wire or a command wire. The weapon contained around 30 litres (8 US gal) of fuel, that was discharged within a second, to a second and a half, producing a flame with a 14-metre (15 yd) range.[43] One defensive installation found in Italy included seven of the weapons, carefully concealed and wired to a central control point.[43]
Finland
During the Winter War Finland adopted the Italian Lanciafiamme Modello 35 as the Liekinheitin M/40; 176 flamethrowers were ordered but only 28 arrived before the end of the war.[44]
Those flamethrowers were not used in the Winter War; but were issued to engineers during the Continuation War along with captured ROKS-2 flamethrowers[44]
OT-130 and OT-133 flame tanks were captured from the Soviet Union and issued at the start of the Continuation War; they were considered impratical and later retrofitted with cannons.[45]
Italy
Italy employed man-portable flamethrowers and
Japan
Japan used man-portable flamethrowers to clear fortified positions, in the
Romania
Flamethrowers were also used by the
Allies
Britain and the Commonwealth
-
A British World War II–type "lifebuoy" flamethrower in 1944
-
A Churchill tank fitted with a Crocodile flamethrower in action.
-
An Australian soldier fires a flamethrower at a Japanese bunker
The British World War II army flamethrowers, "Ack Packs", had a doughnut-shaped fuel tank with a small spherical pressurizer gas tank in the middle. As a result, some troops nicknamed them "lifebuoys". It was officially known as Flamethrower, Portable, No 2.
Extensive plans were made in 1940–1941 by the Petroleum Warfare Department to use flame fougasse static flame projectors in the event of an invasion, with around 50,000 barrel-based incendiary mines being deployed in 7,000 batteries throughout Southern England.[citation needed]
The British hardly used their man-portable systems, relying on Churchill Crocodile tanks in the European theatre. These tanks proved very effective against German defensive positions, and caused official Axis protests against their use.[citation needed] This flamethrower could produce a jet of flame exceeding 140 metres (150 yd). There are documented instances of German units summarily executing any captured British flame-tank crews.[52]
In the Pacific theatre, Australian forces used converted Matilda tanks, known as Matilda Frogs.
United States
-
A soldier from the 33rd Infantry Division uses an M2 flamethrower
-
Marines engaging Japanese positions on Guam with a flamethrower.
-
2nd Marine tank Battalion "Satan" incinerates Japanese pillbox on Saipan
-
An American flamethrower operator runs under fire
-
Front and rear views of a man with an M2A1-7 United States Army flamethrower
In the Pacific theatre, the U.S. Army used M-1 and M-2 flamethrowers to clear stubborn Japanese resistance from prepared defenses, caves, and trenches. Starting in New Guinea, through the closing stages on Guadalcanal and during the approach to and reconquest of the Philippines and then through the Okinawa campaign, the Army deployed hand-held, man-portable units.
Often flamethrower teams were made up of combat engineer units, later with troops of the chemical warfare service. The Army fielded more flamethrower units than the Marine Corps, and the Army's Chemical Warfare Service pioneered tank mounted flamethrowers on Sherman tanks (CWS-POA H-4). All the flamethrower tanks on Okinawa belonged to the 713th Provisional Tank Battalion. It was tasked with supporting all U.S. Army and Marine infantry. All Pacific mechanized flamethrower units were trained by Seabee specialists with Col. Unmacht's CWS Flamethrower Group in Hawaii.
The U.S. Army used flamethrowers in Europe in much smaller numbers, though they were available for special employments. Flamethrowers were deployed during the Normandy landings in order to clear Axis fortifications.[53][54] Also, most boat teams on Omaha Beach included a two-man flamethrower team.[55]
The Marine Corps used the backpack-type
In cases where the Japanese were entrenched in deep caves, the flames often consumed the available oxygen, suffocating the occupants. Many Japanese troops interviewed post war said they were terrified more by flamethrowers than any other American weapon. Flamethrower operators were often the first U.S. troops targeted.
Soviet Union
The FOG-1 and −2 flamethrowers were stationary devices used in defense. They could also be categorized as a projecting incendiary mine. The FOG had only one cylinder of fuel, which was compressed using an explosive charge and projected through a nozzle. The November 1944 issue of the US War Department Intelligence Bulletin refers to these "Fougasse flame throwers" being used in the Soviet defense of Stalingrad. The FOG-1 was directly copied by the Germans as the Abwehrflammenwerfer 42.
Unlike the flamethrowers of the other powers during World War II, the Soviets were the only ones to consciously attempt to
1945–1980
US military
The
Flamethrowers have not been in the U.S. arsenal since 1978, when the Department of Defense unilaterally stopped using them — the last American infantry flamethrower was the Vietnam-era M9-7. They have been deemed of questionable effectiveness in modern combat, though some have made the case for their tactical employment.[58]
U.S. army flamethrowers developed up to the M9 model. In the M9 the propellant tank is a sphere below the left fuel tank and does not project backwards.
Israel
Crude homemade flamethrowers were built by Irgun in the late 1940s.[59]
China
The PLA adopted the Type 74 flamethrower, a copy of the Soviet LPO-50. It was later used in the Sino-Vietnamese War.[60][61]
Vietnam
LPO-50[62] and Type 74 flamethrowers were used by NVA forces during the Vietnam War.[61]
Iraq
The Iraqi army used LPO-50 flamethrowers during the Iran-Iraq War.[63]
Post-1980s
Non-flamethrower incendiary weapons remain in modern military arsenals.
Vietnam
The Type 74 is still being used by the Vietnamese Army.[61]
French assault on Ouvéa cave (1988)
On 22 April 1988, Kanak rebels took 36 French hostages in Ouvéa island, New Caledonia, most of them gendarms and military personnel. On 5 May, after weeks of fruitless negotiations, a team of gendarms and paratroopers from the French Army launched a rescue operation. During the assault, a rebel machine gun position was neutralized using a flamethrower. All hostages were eventually set free.[67]
Provisional IRA
In 1981 the
Brazil
As of 2003 the locally made Hydroar T1M1 flamethrower was still being used by the 1º Batalhão de Forças Especiais.[79]
China
The Chinese Army still issues the Type 74 flamethrower.[61]
During the 2015 Aksu colliery attack, after using tear gas and flash grenades to no avail, the People's Liberation Army resorted to flamethrowers to root out suspected militants who were hiding in a cave.[80][81]
Iraq conflict
Captain Shannon Johnson requested colonel John A. Toolan to supply his company with flamethrowers during the Battle of Fallujah; however no flamethrowers were issued.[82]
The People's Mujahedin of Iran claimed flamethrowers were used in the 2013 Camp Ashraf massacre[83]
Myanmar
Flamethrowers have been used by the Tatmadaw during attacks on Rohingya villages during the Rohingya genocide.[84][85]
Russo-Ukrainian War
On 8 February 2017, separatist leader Mikhail 'Givi' Tolstykh was killed when an RPO-A Shmel rocket-assisted flamethrower was fired at his office in Donetsk.[86]
On 21 November 2022, nine months into the
International law
Despite some assertions, flamethrowers are not generally banned. However the United Nations Protocol on Incendiary Weapons forbids the use of incendiary weapons (including flamethrowers) against civilians. It also forbids their use against forests unless they are used to conceal combatants or other military objectives.
Owning a personal flamethrower
In the United States, private ownership of a flamethrower is not restricted by federal law, because a flamethrower is a tool, not a firearm. Flamethrowers are legal in 48 states and restricted in California and Maryland.[88][89]
In California, unlicensed possession of a flame-throwing device—statutorily defined as "any non-stationary and transportable device designed or intended to emit or propel a burning stream of combustible or flammable liquid a distance of at least 10 feet (3.0 m)" H&W 12750 (a)—is a misdemeanor punishable with a county jail term not exceeding one year or with a fine not exceeding $10,000 (CA H&W 12761). Licenses to use flamethrowers are issued by the state fire marshal, and they may use any criteria for issuing or not issuing that license which is deemed fit, but must publish those criteria in the California Code of Regulations, Title 11, Section 970 et seq.[90][91][92][93]
In the United Kingdom, flamethrowers are "prohibited weapons" under section 5(1)(b) of the Firearms Act 1968[94] and article 45(1)(f) of the Firearms (Northern Ireland) Order 2004 and possession of a flamethrower would carry a sentence of up to ten years' imprisonment.[95] On 16 June 1994, a man attacked school pupils at Sullivan Upper School, just outside Belfast, with a home-made flamethrower.[96]
A South African inventor brought the Blaster car-mounted flamethrower to market in 1998 as a security device to defend against carjackers.[97] It has since been discontinued, with the inventor moving on to pocket-sized self-defence flamethrowers.[98]
Elon Musk, CEO of Tesla, Inc. and owner of SpaceX, developed a "not a flamethrower" for public sale through his business, The Boring Company, selling 20,000 units. This device uses liquid propane gas rather than a stream of gasoline, making it more akin to a torch, like those commonly available at home and garden centers.[99]
Other uses
Flamethrowers are occasionally used for igniting
U.S. troops allegedly used flamethrowers on the streets of Washington, D.C. (mentioned in a December 1998 article in the San Francisco Flier), as one of several clearance methods used for the surprisingly large amount of snow that fell before the presidential inauguration of
Flamethrowers were employed by U.S. combat engineers during the Iraq War; they were used to clear brush and eliminate hiding spots for insurgents[102]
A squad armed with backpack flamethrowers had an important part in the 2012 Summer Paralympics closing ceremony. They had one big tank each. They could make a flame about 4 metres (12 ft) long.
In April 2014 it was reported by South Korea's
In August 2016 it was reported that the Islamic State used flamethrowers to execute six of its commanders in Tal Afar as punishment for their attempt to escape to Syria[104]
It has been known for police to fill a "flamethrower", not with flammable liquid, but rather with tear gas dissolved in water as a riot-control device; see Converted Flamethrower 40.
See also
- Dragon's breath
- Early thermal weapons
- Flame gun
- Huo Long Jing
- List of flamethrowers
- M202A1 FLASH
- Meng Huo You
- Molotov cocktail
- Petroleum Warfare Department
- Technology of Song dynasty
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- ^ "Firearms Act 1968". www.opsi.gov.uk.
- ^ "Pupils hurt in 'flame-thrower' attack". The Independent. October 23, 2011.
- ^ "Flamethrower now an option on S. African cars". CNN. December 11, 1998. Retrieved 2010-03-04.
- AM (ABC Radio)(Interview). Interviewed by Sara Sally.
- ^ "Elon Musk sells all 20,000 Boring Company 'flamethrowers'". The Guardian. London. February 1, 2018. Retrieved 2020-07-11.
- ^ "FAQ". throwflame.com. Retrieved 2018-02-08.
- ^ a b "Inauguration Weather: The Case of Kennedy". The Washington Post, Capital Weather Gang, January 5, 2009.
- ISBN 978-1472809049.
- ^ "North Korean official 'executed by flame-thrower'". The Daily Telegraph. London. Archived from the original on 2022-01-12. Retrieved 2016-04-14.
- ^ "Flamethrowers used to execute ISIS leaders in Tal Afar after their attempts to escape towards Syria fail". Iraqi News. 2016-08-23. Retrieved 2023-12-17.
General bibliography
- Clodfelter, Micheal (May 9, 2017). Warfare and Armed Conflicts: A Statistical Encyclopedia of Casualty and Other Figures, 1492–2015, 4th Ed. ISBN 9780786474707. - Total pages: 824
- McNab, Chris (2015). The Flamethrower. London: Bloomsbury Publishing. pp. 16–18. ISBN 978-1472809049.
- Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China. Vol. 5, Part 7. Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd.
- Wictor, Thomas (2010). Flamethrower Troops of World War I. Atglen, Pennsylvania: Schiffer Publishing Ltd (USA). ISBN 978-0764335266.
External links
- First World War.com: Weapons of War: Flamethrowers
- Fire Against the Enemy – The Flaming Bayonet for Trench Warfare
- Weapons of the World War II gyrene: Flamethrowers
- Howstuffworks "How Flamethrowers Work"
- Jaeger Platoon: Portable flame-throwers
- A history of flamethrowers
- Image of flamethrower in use
- Images, including a tank-mounted flamethrower's nozzle
- The Pen Huo Qi
- History and images of Australian flamethrowers
- WWII German army flamethrowers
- Modern Russian Flamethrowers, page in Russian
- USA-type flamethrower in use
- M42B1 Flamethrower Sherman Tank at U.S. Veterans Memorial Museum