Flavian dynasty
Roman imperial dynasties | ||
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Sir Lawrence Alma-Tadema | ||
Flavian dynasty | ||
Chronology | ||
69–79 AD |
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79–81 AD |
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81–96 AD |
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Family | ||
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The Flavian dynasty ruled the
The reign of Titus was struck by multiple natural disasters, the most severe of which was the eruption of
The Flavians also initiated economic and cultural reforms. Under Vespasian, new taxes were devised to restore the Empire's finances, while Domitian revalued the Roman coinage by increasing its silver content. A massive building programme was enacted by Titus, to celebrate the ascent of the Flavian dynasty, leaving multiple enduring landmarks in the city of Rome, the most spectacular of which was the Flavian Amphitheatre, better known as the Colosseum.
Flavian rule came to an end on 18 September 96, when Domitian was assassinated. He was succeeded by the longtime Flavian supporter and advisor Marcus Cocceius Nerva, who founded the long-lived Nerva–Antonine dynasty.
The Flavian dynasty was unique among the four dynasties of the Principate Era, in that it was only one man and his two sons, without any extended or adopted family.
History
Establishment
Family history
Decades of civil war during the 1st century BC had contributed greatly to the demise of the old aristocracy of Rome, which was gradually replaced in prominence by a new Italian nobility during the early part of the 1st century AD.
Around 38 AD, Vespasian married
From c. 57 to 59, Titus was a military
In 66, the Jews of the
Rise to power
On 9 June 68, amidst the growing opposition of the Senate and the army, Nero committed suicide, and with him the Julio-Claudian dynasty came to an end. Chaos ensued, leading to a year of brutal civil war known as the Year of the Four Emperors, during which the four most influential generals in the Roman Empire—Galba, Otho, Vitellius and Vespasian—successively vied for the imperial power. News of Nero's death reached Vespasian as he was preparing to besiege the city of Jerusalem. Almost simultaneously the Senate had declared Galba, then governor of Hispania Tarraconensis (modern Spain), as Emperor of Rome. Rather than continue his campaign, Vespasian decided to await further orders and send Titus to greet the new Emperor.[21] Before reaching Italy, however, Titus learnt that Galba had been murdered and replaced by Otho, the governor of Lusitania (modern Portugal). At the same time, Vitellius and his armies in Germania had risen in revolt, and prepared to march on Rome, intent on overthrowing Otho. Not wanting to risk being taken hostage by one side or the other, Titus abandoned the journey to Rome and rejoined his father in Judaea.[22]
Otho and Vitellius realised the potential threat posed by the Flavian faction. With four legions at his disposal, Vespasian commanded a strength of nearly 80,000 soldiers. His position in Judaea further granted him the advantage of being nearest to the vital
In Rome, meanwhile, Domitian was placed under
Although the war had officially ended, a state of anarchy and lawlessness pervaded in the first days following the demise of Vitellius. Order was properly restored by Mucianus in early 70, who headed an interim government with Domitian as the representative of the Flavian family in the Senate.[30] Upon receiving the tidings of his rival's defeat and death at Alexandria, the new Emperor at once forwarded supplies of urgently needed grain to Rome, along with an edict or a declaration of policy, in which he gave assurance of an entire reversal of the laws of Nero, especially those relating to treason. In early 70, Vespasian was still in Egypt, however, continuing to consolidate support from the Egyptians before departing.[32] By the end of 70, he finally returned to Rome, and was properly installed as Emperor.
The Flavian dynasty
Vespasian (69–79)
Little factual information survives about Vespasian's government during the ten years he was Emperor. Vespasian spent his first year as a ruler in Egypt, during which the administration of the empire was given to
Titus (79–81)
Despite initial concerns over his character,
Domitian (81–96)
Domitian was declared emperor by the
Administration
Government
Since the fall of the Republic, the authority of the Roman Senate had largely eroded under the quasi-monarchical system of government established by Augustus, known as the Principate. The Principate allowed the existence of a de facto dictatorial regime, while maintaining the formal framework of the Roman Republic.[50] Most Emperors upheld the public facade of democracy, and in return the Senate implicitly acknowledged the Emperor's status as a de facto monarch.[51] The civil war of 69 had made it abundantly clear that real power in the Empire lay with control over the army. By the time Vespasian was proclaimed emperor in Rome, any hope of restoring the Republic had long dissipated.
The Flavian approach to government was one of both implicit and explicit exclusion. When Vespasian returned to Rome in mid-70, he immediately embarked on a series of efforts to consolidate his power and prevent future revolts. He offered gifts to the military and dismissed or punished those soldiers loyal to Vitellius.[52] He also restructured the Senatorial and Equestrian orders, removing his enemies and adding his allies. Executive control was largely distributed among members of his family. Non-Flavians were virtually excluded from important public offices, even those who had been among Vespasian's earliest supporters during the civil war. Mucianus slowly disappears from the historical records during this time, and it is believed he died sometime between 75 and 77.[53] That it was Vespasian's intention to found a long-lasting dynasty to govern the Roman Empire was most evident in the powers he conferred upon his eldest son Titus. Titus shared tribunician power with his father, received seven consulships, the censorship, and perhaps most remarkably, was given command of the Praetorian Guard.[54] Because Titus effectively acted as co-emperor with his father, no abrupt change in Flavian policy occurred during his brief reign from 79 until 81.[55]
Domitian's approach to government was less subtle than his father and brother. Once Emperor, he quickly dispensed with the Republican facade
Financial reforms
One of Vespasian's first acts as Emperor was to enforce a tax reform to restore the Empire's depleted treasury. After Vespasian arrived in Rome in mid-70, Mucianus continued to press Vespasian to collect as many taxes as possible,
Upon his accession, Domitian revalued the Roman coinage to the standard of Augustus, increasing the silver content of the denarius by 12%. An imminent crisis in 85, however, forced a devaluation to the Neronian standard of 65,[61] but this was still higher than the level which Vespasian and Titus had maintained during their reign, and Domitian's rigorous taxation policy ensured that this standard was sustained for the following eleven years.[61] Coin types from this era display a highly consistent degree of quality, including meticulous attention to Domitian's titulature, and exceptionally refined artwork on the reverse portraits.[61]
Jones estimates Domitian's annual income at more than 1,200 million sestertii, of which over one-third would presumably have been spent on maintaining the Roman army.[62] The other major area of expenditure encompassed the vast reconstruction programme carried out on the city of Rome itself.
Challenges
Military activity
The most significant military campaign undertaken during the Flavian period was the siege and destruction of Jerusalem in 70 by Titus. The destruction of the city was the culmination of the Roman campaign in Judaea following the Jewish uprising of 66. The
, which stands at one entrance to the Forum, memorializes the victory of Titus.The conquest of Britain continued under command of
The military campaigns undertaken during Domitian's reign were usually defensive in nature, as the Emperor rejected the idea of expansionist warfare.
Natural disasters
Although his administration was marked by a relative absence of major military or political conflicts, Titus faced a number of major disasters during his brief reign. On 24 August 79, barely two months after his accession,
During Titus' second visit to the disaster area, a fire struck Rome which lasted for three days.
Conspiracies
Suetonius claims that Vespasian was continuously met with conspiracies against him.[34] Only one conspiracy is known specifically. In 78 or 79, Eprius Marcellus and Aulus Caecina Alienus attempted to incite the Praetorian Guard to mutiny against Vespasian, but the conspiracy was thwarted by Titus.[85] According to the historian John Crook, however, the alleged conspiracy was in fact a calculated plot by the Flavian faction to remove members of the opposition tied to Mucianus, with the mutinous address found on Caecina's body a forgery by Titus.[86] When faced with real conspiracies however, Vespasian and Titus treated their enemies with lenience. "I will not kill a dog that barks at me," were words expressing the temper of Vespasian, while Titus once demonstrated his generosity as Emperor by inviting men who were suspected of aspiring to the throne to dinner, rewarding them with gifts and allowing them to be seated next to him at the games.[87]
Domitian appears to have met with several conspiracies during his reign, one of which led to his eventual assassination in 96. The first significant revolt arose on 1 January 89, when the governor of
Both Tacitus and Suetonius speak of escalating persecutions toward the end of Domitian's reign, identifying a point of sharp increase around 93, or sometime after the failed revolt of Saturninus in 89. Some of these men were executed as early as 83 or 85, however, lending little credit to Tacitus' notion of a "reign of terror" late in Domitian's reign. According to Suetonius, some were convicted for corruption or treason, others on trivial charges, which Domitian justified through his suspicion.
Flavian culture
Propaganda
Since the reign of Tiberius, the rulers of the Julio-Claudian dynasty had legitimized their power through adopted-line descent from Augustus and Julius Caesar. Vespasian could no longer claim such a relation, however. Therefore, a massive propaganda campaign was initiated to justify Flavian rule as having been predetermined through divine providence.
The Flavians also controlled public opinion through literature. Vespasian approved histories written under his reign, assuring biases against him were removed,[99] while also giving financial rewards to contemporary writers.[100] The ancient historians that lived through the period such as Tacitus, Suetonius, Josephus and Pliny the Elder speak suspiciously well of Vespasian while condemning the emperors that came before him.[37] Tacitus admits that his status was elevated by Vespasian, Josephus identifies Vespasian as a patron and savior, and Pliny dedicated his Natural History to Vespasian's son, Titus.[101] Those that spoke against Vespasian were punished. A number of Stoic philosophers were accused of corrupting students with inappropriate teachings and were expelled from Rome.[102] Helvidius Priscus, a pro-Republic philosopher, was executed for his teachings.[103]
Titus and Domitian also revived the practice of the
Construction
The Flavian dynasty is perhaps best known for its vast construction programme in the city of Rome, intended to restore the capital from the damage it had suffered during the Great Fire of 64, and the civil war of 69. Vespasian added the Temple of Peace and the Temple to the Deified Claudius.
The bulk of the Flavian construction projects were carried out during the reign of Domitian, who spent lavishly to restore and embellish the city of Rome. Much more than a renovation project, however, Domitian's building programme was intended to be the crowning achievement of an Empire-wide cultural renaissance. Around fifty structures were erected, restored or completed, a number second only to the amount erected under Augustus.
Entertainment
Both Titus and Domitian were fond of gladiatorial games, and realised its importance to appease the citizens of Rome. In the newly constructed Colosseum, the Flavians provided for spectacular entertainments. The
An estimated 135 million sestertii was spent on donativa, or congiaria, throughout Domitian's reign.[114] He also revived the practice of public banquets, which had been reduced to a simple distribution of food under Nero, while he invested large sums on entertainment and games. In 86, he founded the Capitoline Games, a quadrennial contest comprising athletic displays, chariot races, and competitions for oratory, music and acting.[115] Domitian himself supported the travels of competitors from the whole empire and attributed the prizes. Innovations were also introduced into the regular gladiatorial games, such as naval contests, night-time battles, and female and dwarf gladiator fights.[116] Finally, he added two new factions, Gold and Purple, to chariot races, besides the regular White, Red, Green and Blue teams.
Legacy
The Flavians, although a relatively short-lived dynasty, helped restore stability to an empire on its knees. Although all three have been criticised, especially based on their more centralised style of rule, they issued reforms that created a stable enough empire to last well into the 3rd century. However, their background as a military dynasty led to further marginalisation of the Senate, and a conclusive move away from princeps, or first citizen, and toward imperator, or emperor.
Little factual information survives about Vespasian's government during the ten years he was emperor; his reign is best known for financial reforms following the demise of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. Vespasian was noted for his mildness and for loyalty to the people. For example, much money was spent on public works and the restoration and beautification of Rome: a new forum, the Temple of Peace, the public baths and the Colosseum.
Titus's record among ancient historians stands as one of the most exemplary of any emperor. All the surviving accounts from this period, many of them written by his own contemporaries such as Suetonius Tranquillus, Cassius Dio, and Pliny the Elder, present a highly favourable view towards Titus. His character has especially prospered in comparison with that of his brother Domitian. In contrast to the ideal portrayal of Titus in Roman histories, in Jewish memory "Titus the Wicked" is remembered as an evil oppressor and destroyer of the Temple. For example, one legend in the Babylonian Talmud describes Titus as having had sex with a whore on a Torah scroll inside the Temple during its destruction.[117]
Although contemporary historians vilified Domitian after his death, his administration provided the foundation for the peaceful empire of the 2nd century, and the culmination of the Pax Romana. His successors Nerva and Trajan were less restrictive, but, in reality, their policies differed little from Domitian's. Much more than a gloomy coda to the 1st century, the Roman Empire prospered between 81 and 96, in a reign which Theodor Mommsen described as the sombre but intelligent despotism of Domitian.[118]
Flavian family tree
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Dynastic timeline
See also
Notes
- ^ Jones (1992), p. 3
- ^ Jones (1992), p. 1
- ^ a b Jones (1992), p. 2
- ^ Townend (1961), p. 62
- ^ Smith, William, Sir, ed. 1813–1893 (1867). A Dictionary of Greek and Roman biography and mythology. Boston: Little, Brown and co. p. 1248.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - ^ Jones (1992), p. 8
- ^ Suetonius, Life of Domitian 1
- ^ Suetonius, Life of Domitian 4
- ^ Jones (1992), p. 7
- ^ Jones (1992), pp. 9–11
- ^ Jones & Milns (2002), pp. 95–96
- ^ Jones (1992), p. 168
- ^ Townend (1961), p. 57
- ^ a b Jones (1992), p. 11
- ^ a b Jones (1992), p. 38
- ^ Suetonius. "44". Life of Titus.; with Jones and Milns, pp. 95–96
- ^ Josephus, The Wars of the Jews II.19.9
- ^ Jones (1992), p. 13
- ^ Josephus, The Wars of the Jews III.1.2
- ^ a b Josephus, The War of the Jews III.4.2
- ^ Sullivan (1953), p. 69
- ^ Wellesley (2000), p. 44
- ^ Wellesley (2000), p. 45
- ^ a b Sullivan (1953), p. 68
- ^ Wellesley (2000), p. 126
- ^ Waters (1964), p. 54
- ^ Tacitus, Histories III.34
- ^ Wellesley (2000), p. 166
- ^ Wellesley (2000), p. 189
- ^ a b c d Jones (1992), p. 14
- ^ Wellesley (1956), p. 213
- ^ Sullivan (1953), pp. 67–70
- ^ Sullivan, Phillip (1953). "A Note on Flavian Accession". The Classical Journal: 67–70.
- ^ a b Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Vespasian 25
- ^ a b Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Vespasian 9
- ^ Suetonius, Life of Vespasian 23.4
- ^ a b "Otho, Vitellius, and the Propaganda of Vespasian", The Classical Journal (1965), pp. 267–269
- The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Titus 1
- ISBN 0-06-430158-3.
- ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History LXVI.22–24
- ^ Jones, Brian W. The Emperor Titus. New York: St. Martin's P, 1984. 143.
- The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Domitian 5
- The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Domitian 2
- ^ Jones (1992), pp. 73–75
- ^ Jones (1992), pp. 127–144
- ^ Jones (1992), pp. 79–88
- ^ Jones (1992), p. 131
- ^ Jones (1992), pp. 138–142
- ^ Jones (1992), pp. 196–198
- JSTOR 1086720.
- ^ Jones (1992), p. 164
- ^ Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Vespasian 8
- JSTOR 292544.
- ^ Jones (1992), p. 18
- ^ Jones (1992), p. 20
- ^ Jones (1992), p. 22
- ^ Jones (1992), p. 107
- ^ Jones (1992), pp. 163–168
- ^ Jones (1992), pp. 178–179
- ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History, LXVI.2
- ^ a b c Jones (1992), p. 75
- ^ Jone (1992), p. 73
- ^ Josephus, The Wars of the Jews VI.6.1
- ^ a b Josephus, The Wars of the Jews VI.9.3
- ^ Philostratus, The Life of Apollonius of Tyana 6.29 Archived 2016-03-15 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History LXV.6
- ^ Josephus, The Wars of the Jews VII.5.5
- ^ Josephus, The Wars of the Jews VII.5.6
- ^ Tacitus, Agricola 24
- ^ a b c Jones (1992), p. 132
- S2CID 164089455.
- ^ Tacitus, Agricola 29
- ^ Jones (1992), p. 127
- ^ Jones (1992), p. 131
- ^ Jones (1992), p. 138
- ^ Jones (1992), p. 141
- ^ Jones (1992), p. 142
- ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History LXVII.7
- ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History LXVIII.14
- ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History LXVI.22
- ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History LXVI.23
- ^ The exact number of casualties is unknown; however, estimates of the population of Pompeii range between 10,000 ("Pompeii Engineering". Archived from the original on 2008-07-08. Retrieved 2009-03-10.) and 25,000 ([1]), with at least a thousand bodies currently recovered in and around the city ruins.
- ^ a b c Suetonius, Life of Titus 8
- ^ a b c d Cassius Dio, Roman History LXVI.24
- ^ Crook (1963), p. 168
- ^ Crook (1963), p. 169
- The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Titus 9
- ^ Jones (1992), p. 144
- ^ Jones (1992), p. 145
- ^ Jones (1992), p. 146
- ^ Jones (1992), p. 149
- ^ Tacitus, Agricola 45
- ^ Suetonius, "Life of Domitian" 10
- ^ For a full list of senatorial victims, see Jones (1992), pp. 182–188
- ^ M. Arrecinus Clemens may have been exiled instead of executed, see Jones (1992), p. 187
- S2CID 250344174.
- ^ Jones, William "Some Thoughts on the Propaganda of Vespasian and Domitian", The Classical Journal, p. 251
- ^ Aqueduct and roads dedication speak of previous emperors' neglect, CIL vi, 1257(ILS 218) and 931
- ^ Josephus, Against Apion 9
- ^ Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Vespasian 18
- ^ Tacitus, Histories I.1; Josephus, The Life of Flavius Josephus 72; Pliny the Elder, Natural History, preface.
- ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History LXVI.12
- ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History LXVI.13
- ^ Jones (1992), p. 87
- ^ a b Jones (1992), p. 93
- ^ Jones (1992), p. 99
- OCLC 40184695.
- OCLC 185448116.
- ISBN 0-19-288003-9.
- ^ a b c Cassius Dio, Roman History LXVI.25
- The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Titus 7
- ^ Jones (1992), p. 79
- ^ Jones (1992), pp. 84–88
- ^ Jones (1992), p. 74
- ^ Jones (1992), p. 103
- ^ Jones (1992), p. 105
- ^ Babylonian Talmud (Gittin 56b)
- ^ Syme (1930), p. 67
References
- Grainger, John D. (2003). Nerva and the Roman Succession Crisis of 96 CE–99. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-28917-3.
- Jones, Brian W. (1992). The Emperor Domitian. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-10195-6.
- Jones, Brian W.; Milns, Robert (2002). Suetonius: The Flavian Emperors: A Historical Commentary. London: Bristol Classical Press. ISBN 1-85399-613-0.
- Murison, Charles Leslie (2003). "M. Cocceius Nerva and the Flavians" (subscription required). Transactions of the American Philological Association. 133 (1). University of Western Ontario: 147–157. S2CID 162211747.
- Sullivan, Philip B. (1953). "A Note on the Flavian Accession". The Classical Journal. 49 (2). The Classical Association of the Middle West and South, Inc.: 67–70. JSTOR 3293160.
- S2CID 163980436.
- Townend, Gavin (1961). "Some Flavian Connections". The Journal of Roman Studies. 51 (1 & 2). Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies: 54–62. S2CID 163868319.
- Waters, K. H. (1964). "The Character of Domitian". Phoenix. 18 (1). Classical Association of Canada: 49–77. JSTOR 1086912.
- Wellesley, Kenneth (1956). "Three Historical Puzzles in Histories 3". The Classical Quarterly. 6 (3/4). Cambridge University Press: 207–214. S2CID 170747190.
- Wellesley, Kenneth (2000) [1975]. The Year of the Four Emperors. Roman Imperial Biographies. London: Routledge. p. 272. ISBN 978-0-415-23620-1.
Further reading
- Jones, Brian W. (1984). The Emperor Titus. London: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 0-312-24443-6.
- Levick, Barbara (1999). Vespasian (Roman Imperial Biographies. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-16618-7.
External links
Primary sources
- Cassius Dio, Roman History
- Josephus, The War of the Jews, English translation
- On the Life of the Caesars
- Life of Vespasian, Latin text with English translation
- Life of Titus, Latin text with English translation
- Life of Domitian, Latin text with English translation
- Tacitus
Secondary material
- Donahue, John (2004-09-23). "Titus Flavius Vespasianus (A.D. 69–79)". De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and their Families. Retrieved 2008-06-30.
- Donahue, John (2004-10-23). "Titus Flavius Vespasianus (A.D. 79–81)". De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and their Families. Retrieved 2008-06-30.
- Donahue, John (1997-10-10). "Titus Flavius Domitianus (A.D. 81–96)". De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and their Families. Retrieved 2007-02-10.
- "A Gallery of Flavian Coins".