Fly

Fly Temporal range: 245–0  Ma PreꞒ Ꞓ O S D C P T J K Pg N Middle Triassic – Recent
Diptera from different families: Housefly (Muscidae) (top left) Haematopota pluvialis (Tabanidae) (top right) Ctenophora pectinicornis (Tipulidae) (mid left) Ochlerotatus notoscriptus (Culicidae) (mid right) Milesia crabroniformis (Syrphidae) (bottom left) Holcocephala fusca (Asilidae) (bottom right)
Scientific classification
Domain:	Eukaryota
Kingdom:	Animalia
Phylum:	Arthropoda
Class:	Insecta
Superorder:	Panorpida
(unranked):	Antliophora
Order:	Diptera Linnaeus, 1758
Suborders
paraphyletic) (inc Eudiptera) Brachycera

Flies have a mobile head, with a pair of large compound eyes, and mouthparts designed for piercing and sucking (mosquitoes, black flies and robber flies), or for lapping and sucking in the other groups. Their wing arrangement gives them great maneuverability in flight, and claws and pads on their feet enable them to cling to smooth surfaces. Flies undergo complete metamorphosis; the eggs are often laid on the larval food-source and the larvae, which lack true limbs, develop in a protected environment, often inside their food source. Other species like Metopia argyrocephala are ovoviviparous, opportunistically depositing hatched or hatching maggots instead of eggs on carrion, dung, decaying material, or open wounds of mammals. The pupa is a tough capsule from which the adult emerges when ready to do so; flies mostly have short lives as adults.

Diptera is one of the major insect orders and of considerable

The cladogram represents the current consensus view.^[8]

part of Holometabola	Mecopterida Antliophora Diptera Mecoptera (scorpionflies, hangingflies, 400 spp.) (exc. Boreidae) Boreidae (snow scorpionflies, 30 spp.) Siphonaptera (fleas, 2500 spp.) Trichoptera (caddisflies) Lepidoptera (butterflies and moths) Hymenoptera (sawflies, wasps, ants, bees)

Relationships between subgroups and families

The first true dipterans known are from the

Diptera were traditionally broken down into two suborders, Nematocera and Brachycera, distinguished by the differences in antennae. The Nematocera are identified by their elongated bodies and many-segmented, often feathery antennae as represented by mosquitoes and crane flies. The Brachycera have rounder bodies and much shorter antennae.^[13][14] Subsequent studies have identified the Nematocera as being non-monophyletic with modern phylogenies placing the Brachycera within grades of groups formerly placed in the Nematocera. The construction of a phylogenetic tree has been the subject of ongoing research. The following cladogram is based on the FLYTREE project.^[15][16]

Diptera	Ptychopteromorpha (phantom and primitive crane-flies) Culicomorpha (mosquitoes, blackflies and midges) Blephariceromorpha (net-winged midges, etc) Bibionomorpha (gnats) Psychodomorpha (drain flies, sand flies, etc) Tipuloidea (crane flies) Brachycera Stratiomyomorpha (soldier flies, etc) Xylophagomorpha (stink flies, etc) Tabanomorpha (horse flies, snipe flies, etc) Mus Nemestrinoidea Asiloidea (robber flies, bee flies, etc) Ere Empidoidea (dance flies, etc) Cyc Aschiza (in part) Phoroidea (flat-footed flies, etc) Syrphoidea (hoverflies) Sch Cal Hippoboscoidea (louse flies, etc) Muscoidea (house flies, dung flies, etc) Oestroidea (blow flies, flesh flies, etc) Acalyptratae (marsh flies, etc)	"Nematocera"

Diversity

Flies are often abundant and are found in almost all terrestrial habitats in the world apart from Antarctica. They include many familiar insects such as house flies, blow flies, mosquitoes, gnats, black flies, midges and fruit flies. More than 150,000 have been formally described and the actual species diversity is much greater, with the flies from many parts of the world yet to be studied intensively.^[17][18] The suborder Nematocera include generally small, slender insects with long antennae such as mosquitoes, gnats, midges and crane-flies, while the Brachycera includes broader, more robust flies with short antennae. Many nematoceran larvae are aquatic.^[19] There are estimated to be a total of about 19,000 species of Diptera in Europe, 22,000 in the Nearctic region, 20,000 in the Afrotropical region, 23,000 in the Oriental region and 19,000 in the Australasian region.^[20] While most species have restricted distributions, a few like the housefly (Musca domestica) are cosmopolitan.^[21] Gauromydas heros (Asiloidea), with a length of up to 7 cm (2.8 in), is generally considered to be the largest fly in the world,^[22] while the smallest is Euryplatea nanaknihali, which at 0.4 mm (0.016 in) is smaller than a grain of salt.^[23]

Brachycera are ecologically very diverse, with many being predatory at the larval stage and some being parasitic. Animals parasitised include molluscs, woodlice, millipedes, insects, mammals,^[20] and amphibians.^[24] Flies are the second largest group of pollinators after the Hymenoptera (bees, wasps and relatives). In wet and colder environments flies are significantly more important as pollinators. Compared to bees, they need less food as they do not need to provision their young. Many flowers that bear low nectar and those that have evolved trap pollination depend on flies.^[25] It is thought that some of the earliest pollinators of plants may have been flies.^[26]

The greatest diversity of gall forming insects are found among the flies, principally in the family Cecidomyiidae (gall midges).^[27] Many flies (most importantly in the family Agromyzidae) lay their eggs in the mesophyll tissue of leaves with larvae feeding between the surfaces forming blisters and mines.^[28] Some families are mycophagous or fungus feeding. These include the cave dwelling Mycetophilidae (fungus gnats) whose larvae are the only diptera with bioluminescence. The Sciaridae are also fungus feeders. Some plants are pollinated by fungus feeding flies that visit fungus infected male flowers.^[29]

The larvae of

Flies are adapted for aerial movement and typically have short and streamlined bodies. The first

Flies have a mobile head with a pair of large

Like other insects, flies have chemoreceptors that detect smell and taste, and mechanoreceptors that respond to touch. The third segments of the antennae and the maxillary palps bear the main olfactory receptors, while the gustatory receptors are in the labium, pharynx, feet, wing margins and female genitalia,^[42] enabling flies to taste their food by walking on it. The taste receptors in females at the tip of the abdomen receive information on the suitability of a site for ovipositing.^[41] Flies that feed on blood have special sensory structures that can detect infrared emissions, and use them to home in on their hosts, and many blood-sucking flies can detect the raised concentration of carbon dioxide that occurs near large animals.^[43] Some tachinid flies (Ormiinae) which are parasitoids of bush crickets, have sound receptors to help them locate their singing hosts.^[44]

Diptera have one pair of fore

The abdomen shows considerable variability among members of the order. It consists of eleven segments in primitive groups and ten segments in more derived groups, the tenth and eleventh segments having fused.[47] The last two or three segments are adapted for reproduction. Each segment is made up of a dorsal and a ventral sclerite, connected by an elastic membrane. In some females, the sclerites are rolled into a flexible, telescopic ovipositor.^[34]

Flight

Flies are capable of great manoeuvrability during flight due to the presence of the halteres. These act as gyroscopic organs and are rapidly oscillated in time with the wings; they act as a balance and guidance system by providing rapid feedback to the wing-steering muscles, and flies deprived of their halteres are unable to fly. The wings and halteres move in synchrony but the amplitude of each wing beat is independent, allowing the fly to turn sideways.^[48] The wings of the fly are attached to two kinds of muscles, those used to power it and another set used for fine control.^[49]

Flies tend to fly in a straight line then make a rapid change in direction before continuing on a different straight path. The directional changes are called saccades and typically involve an angle of 90°, being achieved in 50 milliseconds. They are initiated by visual stimuli as the fly observes an object, nerves then activate steering muscles in the thorax that cause a small change in wing stroke which generate sufficient torque to turn. Detecting this within four or five wingbeats, the halteres trigger a counter-turn and the fly heads off in a new direction.^[50]

Flies have rapid reflexes that aid their escape from predators but their sustained flight speeds are low. Dolichopodid flies in the genus Condylostylus respond in less than 5 milliseconds to camera flashes by taking flight.^[51] In the past, the deer bot fly, Cephenemyia, was claimed to be one of the fastest insects on the basis of an estimate made visually by Charles Townsend in 1927.^[52] This claim, of speeds of 600 to 800 miles per hour, was regularly repeated until it was shown to be physically impossible as well as incorrect by Irving Langmuir. Langmuir suggested an estimated speed of 25 miles per hour.^[53][54][55]

Although most flies live and fly close to the ground, a few are known to fly at heights and a few like Oscinella (Chloropidae) are known to be dispersed by winds at altitudes of up to 2000 ft and over long distances.^[56] Some hover flies like Metasyrphus corollae have been known to undertake long flights in response to aphid population spurts.^[57]

Males of fly species such as Cuterebra, many hover flies,^[58] bee flies (Bombyliidae)^[59] and fruit flies (Tephritidae)^[60] maintain territories within which they engage in aerial pursuit to drive away intruding males and other species.^[61] While these territories may be held by individual males, some species, such as A. freeborni,^[62] form leks with many males aggregating in displays.^[60] Some flies maintain an airspace and still others form dense swarms that maintain a stationary location with respect to landmarks. Many flies mate in flight while swarming.^[63]

Life cycle and development

Diptera go through a complete metamorphosis with four distinct life stages – egg, larva, pupa and adult.

Larva

In many flies, the larval stage is long and adults may have a short life. Most dipteran larvae develop in protected environments; many are aquatic and others are found in moist places such as carrion, fruit, vegetable matter, fungi and, in the case of parasitic species, inside their hosts. They tend to have thin cuticles and become desiccated if exposed to the air. Apart from the Brachycera, most dipteran larvae have sclerotised head capsules, which may be reduced to remnant mouth hooks; the Brachycera, however, have soft, gelatinized head capsules from which the sclerites are reduced or missing. Many of these larvae retract their heads into their thorax.^[34][64] The spiracles in the larva and pupa do not have any internal mechanical closing device.^[65]

Some other anatomical distinction exists between the larvae of the Nematocera and the Brachycera. Especially in the Brachycera, little demarcation is seen between the thorax and abdomen, though the demarcation may be visible in many Nematocera, such as mosquitoes; in the Brachycera, the head of the larva is not clearly distinguishable from the rest of the body, and few, if any, sclerites are present. Informally, such brachyceran larvae are called maggots,^[66] but the term is not technical and often applied indifferently to fly larvae or insect larvae in general. The eyes and antennae of brachyceran larvae are reduced or absent, and the abdomen also lacks appendages such as cerci. This lack of features is an adaptation to food such as carrion, decaying detritus, or host tissues surrounding endoparasites.^[35] Nematoceran larvae generally have well-developed eyes and antennae, while those of Brachyceran larvae are reduced or modified.^[67]

Dipteran larvae have no jointed, "true legs",

The adult stage is usually short, its function is only to mate and lay eggs. The genitalia of male flies are rotated to a varying degree from the position found in other insects.[72] In some flies, this is a temporary rotation during mating, but in others, it is a permanent torsion of the organs that occurs during the pupal stage. This torsion may lead to the anus being below the genitals, or, in the case of 360° torsion, to the sperm duct being wrapped around the gut and the external organs being in their usual position. When flies mate, the male initially flies on top of the female, facing in the same direction, but then turns around to face in the opposite direction. This forces the male to lie on his back for his genitalia to remain engaged with those of the female, or the torsion of the male genitals allows the male to mate while remaining upright. This leads to flies having more reproduction abilities than most insects, and much quicker. Flies occur in large populations due to their ability to mate effectively and quickly during the mating season.^[35] More primitive groups mates in the air during swarming, but most of the more advanced species with a 360° torsion mate on a substrate.^[73]

Ecology

As ubiquitous insects, dipterans play an important role at various trophic levels both as consumers and as prey. In some groups the larvae complete their development without feeding, and in others the adults do not feed. The larvae can be herbivores, scavengers, decomposers, predators or parasites, with the consumption of decaying organic matter being one of the most prevalent feeding behaviours. The fruit or detritus is consumed along with the associated micro-organisms, a sieve-like filter in the pharynx being used to concentrate the particles, while flesh-eating larvae have mouth-hooks to help shred their food. The larvae of some groups feed on or in the living tissues of plants and fungi, and some of these are serious pests of agricultural crops. Some aquatic larvae consume the films of algae that form underwater on rocks and plants. Many of the parasitoid larvae grow inside and eventually kill other arthropods, while parasitic larvae may attack vertebrate hosts.^[34]

Whereas many dipteran larvae are aquatic or live in enclosed terrestrial locations, the majority of adults live above ground and are capable of flight. Predominantly they feed on nectar or plant or animal exudates, such as honeydew, for which their lapping mouthparts are adapted. Some flies have functional mandibles that may be used for biting. The flies that feed on vertebrate blood have sharp stylets that pierce the skin, with some species having anticoagulant saliva that is regurgitated before absorbing the blood that flows; in this process, certain diseases can be transmitted. The bot flies (Oestridae) have evolved to parasitize mammals. Many species complete their life cycle inside the bodies of their hosts.^[74] The larvae of a few fly groups (Agromyzidae, Anthomyiidae, Cecidomyiidae) are capable of inducing plant galls. Some dipteran larvae are leaf-miners. The larvae of many brachyceran families are predaceous. In many dipteran groups, swarming is a feature of adult life, with clouds of insects gathering in certain locations; these insects are mostly males, and the swarm may serve the purpose of making their location more visible to females.^[34]

Most adult diptera have their mouthparts modified to sponge up fluid. The adults of many species of flies (e.g. Anthomyia sp., Steganopsis melanogaster) that feed on liquid food will regurgitate fluid in a behaviour termed as "bubbling" which has been thought to help the insects evaporate water and concentrate food^[75] or possibly to cool by evaporation.^[76] Some adult diptera are known for kleptoparasitism such as members of the Sarcophagidae. The miltogramminae are known as "satellite flies" for their habit of following wasps and stealing their stung prey or laying their eggs into them. Phorids, milichids and the genus Bengalia are known to steal food carried by ants.^[77] Adults of Ephydra hians forage underwater, and have special hydrophobic hairs that trap a bubble of air that lets them breathe underwater.^[78]

Anti-predator adaptations

Flies are eaten by other animals at all stages of their development. The eggs and larvae are parasitised by other insects and are eaten by many creatures, some of which specialise in feeding on flies but most of which consume them as part of a mixed diet. Birds, bats, frogs, lizards, dragonflies and spiders are among the predators of flies.

In contrast, Drosophila subobscura, a species of fly in the genus Drosophila, lacks a category of hemocytes that are present in other studied species of Drosophila, leading to an inability to defend against parasitic attacks, a form of innate immunodeficiency.^[86]

Human interaction and cultural depictions

Symbolism

Flies play a variety of symbolic roles in different cultures. These include both positive and negative roles in religion. In the traditional

Musca depicta ("painted fly" in Latin) is a depiction of a fly as an inconspicuous element of various paintings. This feature was widespread in 15th and 16th centuries paintings and its presence may be explained by various reasons.^[100]

Flies appear in popular culture in concepts such as

Dipterans are an important group of insects and have a considerable impact on the environment. Some

river blindness; sand flies carry leishmaniasis. Other dipterans are a nuisance to humans, especially when present in large numbers; these include houseflies, which contaminate food and spread food-borne illnesses; the biting midges and sandflies (Ceratopogonidae) and the houseflies and stable flies (Muscidae).^[34] In tropical regions, eye flies (Chloropidae) which visit the eye in search of fluids can be a nuisance in some seasons.^[104]

Many dipterans serve roles that are useful to humans. Houseflies, blowflies and fungus gnats (Mycetophilidae) are scavengers and aid in decomposition. Robber flies (Asilidae), tachinids (Tachinidae) and dagger flies and balloon flies (Empididae) are predators and parasitoids of other insects, helping to control a variety of pests. Many dipterans such as bee flies (Bombyliidae) and hoverflies (Syrphidae) are pollinators of crop plants.^[34]

Uses

Drosophila melanogaster, a fruit fly, has long been used as a model organism in research because of the ease with which it can be bred and reared in the laboratory, its small genome, and the fact that many of its genes have counterparts in higher eukaryotes. A large number of genetic studies have been undertaken based on this species; these have had a profound impact on the study of gene expression, gene regulatory mechanisms and mutation. Other studies have investigated physiology, microbial pathogenesis and development among other research topics.^[105] The studies on dipteran relationships by Willi Hennig helped in the development of cladistics, techniques that he applied to morphological characters but now adapted for use with molecular sequences in phylogenetics.^[106]

Maggots found on corpses are useful to forensic entomologists. Maggot species can be identified by their anatomical features and by matching their DNA. Maggots of different species of flies visit corpses and carcases at fairly well-defined times after the death of the victim, and so do their predators, such as beetles in the family Histeridae. Thus, the presence or absence of particular species provides evidence for the time since death, and sometimes other details such as the place of death, when species are confined to particular habitats such as woodland.^[107]

Casu marzu is a traditional Sardinian sheep milk cheese that contains larvae of the cheese fly

, Piophila casei.

Some species of maggots such as

casters) are bred commercially; they are sold as bait in angling, and as food for carnivorous animals (kept as pets, in zoos, or for research) such as some mammals,^[108] fishes, reptiles, and birds. It has been suggested that fly larvae could be used at a large scale as food for farmed chickens, pigs, and fish. However, consumers are opposed to the inclusion of insects in their food, and the use of insects in animal feed remains illegal in areas such as the European Union.^[109][110]

Fly larvae can be used as a

antibacterial activity found in their secretions as they feed.^[112] These medicinal maggots are a safe and effective treatment for chronic wounds.^[113]

The

Flies are a health hazard and are attracted to toilets because of their smell. The New Scientist magazine suggested a trap for these flies. A pipe acting as a chimney was fitted to the toilet which let in some light to attract these flies up to the end of this pipe where a gauze covering prevented escape to the air outside so that they were trapped and died. Toilets are generally dark inside particularly if the door is closed.

Notes

References

1. PMID 10382224
   .
2. ^ "Order Diptera: Flies". BugGuide. Iowa State University. Retrieved 26 May 2016.
3. ^ Comstock, John Henry (1949). An Introduction to Entomology. Comstock Publishing. p. 773.
4. S2CID 9356614
   .
5. PMID 24646345
   .
6. ^ "Taxon: Superorder Antliophora". The Taxonomicon. Retrieved 21 August 2007.
7. Royal Entomological Society of London
   . p. 84.
8. ^ Yeates, David K.; Wiegmann, Brian. "Endopterygota Insects with complete metamorphosis". Tree of Life. Retrieved 24 May 2016.
9. ISBN 978-1-4020-0026-3
   .
10. doi:10.1093/ee/16.4.847
    .
11. ^
    PMID 21402926
    .
12. ISBN 978-0-231-50170-5
    .
13. ^ B.B. Rohdendorf. 1964. Trans. Inst. Paleont., Acad. Sci. USSR, Moscow, v. 100
14. ^ Wiegmann, Brian M.; Yeates, David K. (29 November 2007). "Diptera True Flies". Tree of Life. Retrieved 25 May 2016.
15. ^ Yeates, David K.; Meier, Rudolf; Wiegmann, Brian. "Phylogeny of True Flies (Diptera): A 250 Million Year Old Success Story in Terrestrial Diversification". Flytree. Illinois Natural History Survey. Archived from the original on 28 December 2015. Retrieved 24 May 2016.
16. doi:10.11646/zootaxa.1668.1.27
    .
17. ISBN 978-90-04-14897-0
    .
18. PMID 15012378
    .
19. ^ Wiegmann, Brian M.; Yeates, David K. (2007). "Diptera: True flies". Tree of Life Web Project. Retrieved 27 May 2016.
20. ^
    PMID 25733962
    .
21. PMID 12407211
    .
22. ^ Owen, James (10 December 2015). "World's Biggest Fly Faces Two New Challengers". National Geographic. Archived from the original on 13 December 2015. Retrieved 21 July 2016.
23. ^ Welsh, Jennifer (2 July 2012). "World's Tiniest Fly May Decapitate Ants, Live in Their Heads". Livescience. Retrieved 21 July 2016.
24. S2CID 32817424
    .
25. S2CID 39619017
    .
26. S2CID 19305979
    .
27. doi:10.1016/j.baae.2005.07.002
    .
28. PMID 17291785
    .
29. PMID 10719005
    .
30. PMID 17622197
    .
31. S2CID 36686371
    .
32. ^
    doi:10.1146/annurev.en.40.010195.002221
    .
33. ISBN 978-1-4051-4457-5
    .
34. ^
    ISBN 978-0-08-092090-0
    .
35. ^
    ISBN 978-0-19-510033-4
    .
36. PMID 11943823
    .
37. ISBN 978-3-642-74084-8
    .
38. S2CID 227306897
    .
39. PMID 10934276
    .
40. S2CID 26541123
    .
41. ^
    ISBN 978-81-315-0104-7.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link
    )
42. S2CID 23210046
    .
43. PMID 26662853
    .
44. S2CID 46359462
    .
45. ^ "Strepsiptera: Stylops". Insects and their Allies. CSIRO. Retrieved 25 May 2016.
46. PMID 15539345
    .
47. ISBN 978-0-08-091925-6
    .
48. PMID 25605915
    .
49. doi:10.1016/S0300-9629(96)00162-4
    .
50. S2CID 7306151
    .
51. S2CID 86502767
    .
52. JSTOR 25004207
    .
53. PMID 17770404
    .
54. JSTOR 25004791
    .
55. doi:10.1093/ae/45.1.4
    .
56. JSTOR 2148
    .
57. S2CID 83629356
    .
58. S2CID 86181761
    .
59. S2CID 25061334
    .
60. ^
    doi:10.1163/156853909X410766
    .
61. S2CID 53180240
    .
62. S2CID 22921039
    .
63. doi:10.1146/annurev.en.14.010169.001415
    .
64. ^
    ISBN 978-1-4051-4457-5
    .
65. ^ Manual of Nearctic Diptera
66. ISBN 978-0-19-861271-1
    .
67. ISBN 978-0-19-957321-9
    .
68. ISBN 978-0-521-57890-5
    .
69. S2CID 86129322
    .
70. S2CID 86908583
    .
71. ^ Gillott, Cedric (2005). Entomology (3 ed.). Springer. pp. 614–615.
72. ^ "Crampton, G. The TemporalAbdominal Structures of Male Diptera". Archived from the original on 23 May 2018. Retrieved 22 May 2018.
73. ^ Sex with a twist in the tail: The common-or-garden housefly
74. S2CID 43307061
    .
75. S2CID 86705683
    .
76. PMID 29674725
    .
77. ^ Marshall, S.A.; Kirk-Spriggs, A.H. (2017). "Natural history of Diptera". In Kirk-Spriggs, A.H.; Sinclair, B.J. (eds.). Manual of Afrotropical Diptera. Volume 1. Introductory chapters and keys to Diptera families. Suricata 4. Pretoria: South African National Biodiversity Institute. pp. 135–152.
78. PMID 29158381
    .
79. ISBN 978-0-7327-3471-8
    .
80. ^ Gilbert, Francis (2004). The evolution of imperfect mimicry in hoverflies (PDF). CABI. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 November 2017. Retrieved 27 July 2016.
81. doi:10.1093/beheco/arn148
    .
82. S2CID 84201196
    .
83. doi:10.1093/aesa/81.3.532
    .
84. JSTOR 25085158
    .
85. ISBN 978-0-691-00047-3
    .
86. PMID 16620975
    .
87. ^ Leland Clifton Wyman (1983). "Navajo Ceremonial System" (PDF). Handbook of North American Indians. p. 539. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 March 2016. Retrieved 30 July 2015. Nearly every element in the universe may be thus personalized, and even the least of these such as tiny Chipmunk and those little insect helpers and mentors of deity and man in the myths, Big Fly (Dǫ'soh) and Ripener (Corn Beetle) Girl ('Anilt'ánii 'At'ééd) (Wyman and Bailey 1964:29–30, 51, 137–144), are as necessary for the harmonious balance of the universe as is the great Sun.
88. LCCN 64024356
    .
89. ^ "Native American Fly Mythology". Native Languages of the Americas website.
90. ^ "Βεελζεβούλ, ὁ indecl. (v.l. Βεελζεβούβ and Βεεζεβούλ W-S. §5, 31, cp. 27 n. 56) Beelzebul, orig. a Philistine deity; the name בַּעַל זְבוּב means Baal (lord) of the flies (4 Km 1:2, 6; Sym. transcribes βεελζεβούβ; Vulgate Beelzebub; TestSol freq. Βεελζεβούλ,-βουέλ).", Arndt, W., Danker, F. W., & Bauer, W. (2000). A Greek-English lexicon of the New Testament and other early Christian literature (3rd ed.) (173). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
91. ^ "1. According to 2 Kgs 1:2–6 the name of the Philistine god of Ekron was Lord of the Flies (Heb. ba‘al zeaûḇ), from whom Israel’s King Ahaziah requested an oracle.", Balz, H. R., & Schneider, G. (1990–). Vol. 1: Exegetical dictionary of the New Testament (211). Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans.
92. ^ "For etymological reasons, Baal Zebub must be considered a Semitic god; he is taken over by the Philistine Ekronites and incorporated into their local cult.", Herrmann, "Baal Zebub", in Toorn, K., Becking, B., & Horst, P. W. (1999). Dictionary of deities and demons in the Bible DDD (2nd extensively rev. ed.) (154). Leiden; Boston; Grand Rapids, Mich.: Brill; Eerdmans.
93. ^
    ISBN 978-0-7141-1705-8
    .
94. ISBN 0-19-814730-9
    .
95. ISBN 978-0-19-925867-3
    .
96. ISBN 978-0-19-513149-9
    .
97. ^
    ISBN 978-1-4438-2466-8
    .
98. ISBN 978-0-8240-6697-0
    .
99. ^ Dethier, Vincent G. (1962). To Know a Fly. San Francisco: Holden-Day.
100. ^ Encyclopedia of Insects, p. 242
101. ^ "Fly on the Wall". British Film Institute. Retrieved 21 July 2016.
102. S2CID 21912409
     .
103. ^ Gray, Richard (12 September 2013). "Jurassic Park ruled out – dinosaur DNA could not survive in amber". Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 21 July 2016.
104. S2CID 28636403
     .
105. ^ "Why use the fly in research?". YourGenome. 19 June 2015. Retrieved 27 May 2016.
106. doi:10.1146/annurev.es.05.110174.000501
     .
107. PMID 22408328
     .
108. ^ Ogunleye, R. F.; Edward, J. B. (2005). "Roasted maggots (Dipteran larvae) as a dietary protein source for laboratory animals". African Journal of Applied Zoology and Environmental Biology. 7: 140–143.
109. British Broadcasting Corporation
     . Retrieved 24 May 2016.
110. ^ "Why are insects not allowed in animal feed?" (PDF). All About Feed. August 2014. Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 August 2016. Retrieved 24 May 2016.
111. ^ Stegman, Sylvia; Steenvoorde, Pascal (2011). "Maggot debridement therapy". Proceedings of the Netherlands Entomological Society Meeting. 22: 61–66.
112. PMID 24754920
     .
113. PMID 22584527
     .
114. doi:10.1093/ae/53.3.132. Archived from the original
     (PDF) on 16 December 2010.
115. ^ Colangelo, Matt (9 October 2015). "A Desperate Search for Casu Marzu, Sardinia's Illegal Maggot Cheese". Food and Wine. Retrieved 24 May 2016.
116. ^ Brones, Anna (15 April 2013). "Illegal food: step away from the cheese, ma'am". The Guardian. Retrieved 26 May 2016.

Further reading

• Blagoderov, V.A., Lukashevich, E.D. & Mostovski, M.B. (2002)). "Order Diptera". In:
  Rasnitsyn, A.P.
  and Quicke, D.L.J. The History of Insects, Kluwer pp.–227–240.
• Colless, D.H. & McAlpine, D.K. (1991). Diptera (flies), pp. 717–786. In: The Division of Entomology. Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation, Canberra (spons.), The Insects of Australia. Melbourne University Press.
• Hennig, Willi. "Diptera (Zweifluger)". Handb. Zool. Berl. 4 (2) (31):1–337. General introduction with key to World Families (in German).
• Oldroyd, Harold (1965). The Natural History of Flies. W. W. Norton.
• Séguy, Eugène (1924–1953). Diptera: recueil d'etudes biologiques et systematiques sur les Dipteres du Globe (Collection of biological and systematic studies on Diptera of the World). 11 vols. Part of Encyclopedie Entomologique, Serie B II: Diptera.
• Séguy, Eugène (1950). La Biologie des Dipteres.
• Thompson, F. Christian. "Sources for the Biosystematic Database of World Diptera (Flies)" (PDF). United States Department of Agriculture, Systematic Entomology Laboratory. Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 September 2015.

External links

Wikiquote has quotations related to Flies.

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Diptera.

Wikispecies has information related to Diptera.

Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article "Fly".

General

• The Systema Dipterorum Database site
• The Diptera.info portal with galleries and discussion forums
• FLYTREE – dipteran phylogeny. Archived 13 April 2020 at the Wayback Machine.
• The Dipterists Forum – The Society for the study of flies
• BugGuide
• The World Catalog of Fossil Diptera
• The Tree of Life Project

Anatomy

• Fly: Anatomical Atlas at CSIRO
• Drawing Wing venation

Describers

• Authors of fly names (PDF)
• Systema Dipterorum Nomenclator