Folklore studies
Folklore studies (less often known as folkloristics, and occasionally tradition studies or folk life studies in the United Kingdom)[1] is the branch of anthropology devoted to the study of folklore. This term, along with its synonyms,[note 1] gained currency in the 1950s to distinguish the academic study of traditional culture from the folklore artifacts themselves. It became established as a field across both Europe and North America, coordinating with Volkskunde (German), folkeminner (Norwegian), and folkminnen (Swedish), among others.[5]
Overview
The importance of folklore and folklore studies was recognized globally in 1982 in the
"...[Folklife] means the traditional expressive culture shared within the various groups in the United States: familial, ethnic, occupational, religious, regional; expressive culture includes a wide range of creative and symbolic forms such as custom, belief, technical skill, language, literature, art, architecture, music, play, dance, drama, ritual, pageantry, handicraft; these expressions are mainly learned orally, by imitation, or in performance, and are generally maintained without benefit of formal instruction or institutional direction."
This law was added to the variety of other legislation designed to protect the natural and cultural heritage of the United States. It gives voice to a growing understanding that the cultural diversity of the United States is a national strength and a resource worthy of protection.[8]
To fully understand the term folklore studies, it is necessary to clarify its component parts: the terms folk and lore. Originally the word folk applied only to rural, frequently poor, frequently illiterate peasants. A more contemporary definition of folk is a social group which includes two or more persons with common traits, who express their shared identity through distinctive traditions. "Folk is a flexible concept which can refer to a nation as in
Transmission of these artifacts is a vital part of the folklore process. Without communicating these beliefs and customs within the group over space and time, they would become cultural shards relegated to cultural archaeologists. These
The folklorist strives to understand the significance of these beliefs, customs and objects for the group. For "folklore means something – to the tale teller, to the song singer, to the fiddler, and to the audience or addressees".[11] These cultural units[12] would not be passed along unless they had some continued relevance within the group. That meaning can however shift and morph.
With an increasingly theoretical sophistication of the social sciences, it has become evident that folklore is a naturally occurring and necessary component of any social group, it is indeed all around us.
Terminology
The terms folklore studies and folklore belong to a large and confusing word family. We have already used the synonym pairs Folkloristics / Folklife Studies and folklore / folklife, all of them in current usage within the field. Folklore was the original term used in this discipline. Its synonym, folklife, came into circulation in the second half of the 20th century, at a time when some researchers felt that the term folklore was too closely tied exclusively to oral lore. The new term folklife, along with its synonym folk culture, is meant to categorically include all aspects of a culture, not just the oral traditions. Folk process is used to describe the refinement and creative change of artifacts by community members within the folk tradition that defines the folk process.[15] Professionals within this field, regardless of the other words they use, consider themselves to be folklorists.
Other terms which might be confused with folklore are
There are also further cognates used in connection with folklore studies. Folklorism refers to "material or stylistic elements of folklore [presented] in a context which is foreign to the original tradition." This definition, offered by the folklorist Hermann Bausinger, does not discount the validity of meaning expressed in these "second hand" traditions.
Methodology
There are several goals of active folklore research. The first objective is to identify tradition bearers within a social group and to collect their lore, preferably in situ. Once collected, these data need to be documented and preserved to enable further access and study. The documented lore is then available to be analyzed and interpreted by folklorists and other cultural historians, and can become the basis for studies of either individual customs or comparative studies. There are multiple venues, be they museums, journals or folk festivals to present the research results. The final step in this methodology involves advocating for these groups in their distinctiveness.[18]
The specific tools needed by folklorists to do their research are manifold.
- The researchers must be comfortable in fieldwork; going out to meet their informants where they live, work, and perform.
- They need to access archives housing a vast array of unpublished folklore collections.
- They will want work with folk museums, to both view the collections, and present their own findings.
- Bibliographies maintained by libraries and on line contain an important trove of articles from around the world.
- The use of indexes allow them to view and use the categorization of artifacts which have already been established.
- All work by a folklorist must be appropriately annotated in order to provide identifiable sources of the work.
- For all folklorists terminology becomes a skill to master as they rub elbows not only with related academic fields but also with the colloquial understanding (what exactly is a fairy tale?). This shared vocabulary, with varying and sometimes divergent shades of meaning, needs to be used thoughtfully and consistently.
- The use of printed sources to locate and identify further variants of a folk tradition is a necessary adjunct to the field research.
- Because the transmission of folk artifacts preceded and ignored the establishment of national and political boundaries, it is important to cultivate international connections to folklorists in neighboring countries and around the world to compare both the artifacts researched and the methodology used.
- A knowledge of the history of folklore studies is called for to identify the direction and more importantly the biases which the field has taken in the past, enabling us to temper the current analysis with more impartiality.[19][note 2]
The folklorist also rubs shoulders with researchers, tools and inquiries of neighboring fields: literature, anthropology, cultural history, linguistics, geography, musicology, sociology, psychology. This is just a partial list of the fields of study related to folklore studies, all of which are united by a common interest in subject matter.[21]
History
From antiquities to lore
It is well-documented that the term folklore was coined in 1846 by the Englishman
With increasing industrialization, urbanization, and the rise in literacy throughout Europe in the 19th century, folklorists were concerned that the oral knowledge and beliefs, the
As the need to collect these vestiges of rural traditions became more compelling, the need to formalize this new field of cultural studies became apparent. The British
Viewed as fragments from a pre-literate culture, these stories and objects were collected without context to be displayed and studied in museums and anthologies, just as bones and potsherds were gathered for the life sciences.
Aarne–Thompson and the historic–geographic method
By the beginning of the 20th century these collections had grown to include artifacts from around the world and across several centuries. A system to organize and categorize them became necessary.
In an effort to understand and explain the similarities found in tales from different locations, the Finnish folklorists Julius and Kaarle Krohne developed the Historical-Geographical method, also called the Finnish method.[37] Using multiple variants of a tale, this investigative method attempted to work backwards in time and location to compile the original version from what they considered the incomplete fragments still in existence. This was the search for the "Urform",[23] which by definition was more complete and more "authentic" than the newer, more scattered versions. The historic-geographic method has been succinctly described as a "quantitative mining of the resulting archive, and extraction of distribution patterns in time and space". It is based on the assumption that every text artifact is a variant of the original text. As a proponent of this method, Walter Anderson proposed additionally a Law of Self-Correction, i.e. a feedback mechanism which would keep the variants closer to the original form.[38][note 4]
It was during the first decades of the 20th century that Folklore Studies in Europe and America began to diverge. The Europeans continued with their emphasis on oral traditions of the pre-literate peasant, and remained connected to literary scholarship within the universities. By this definition, folklore was completely based in the European cultural sphere; any social group that did not originate in Europe was to be studied by
In contrast to this, American folklorists, under the influence of the German-American
Great Depression and the Federal Writers' Project
Then came the 1930s and the worldwide Great Depression. In the United States the Federal Writers' Project was established as part of the WPA. Its goal was to offer paid employment to thousands of unemployed writers by engaging them in various cultural projects around the country. These white collar workers were sent out as field workers to collect the oral folklore of their regions, including stories, songs, idioms and dialects. The most famous of these collections is the Slave Narrative Collection. The folklore collected under the auspices of the Federal Writers Project during these years continues to offer a goldmine of primary source materials for folklorists and other cultural historians.[43]
As chairman of the Federal Writers' Project between 1938 and 1942, Benjamin A. Botkin supervised the work of these folklore field workers. Both Botkin and John Lomax were particularly influential during this time in expanding folklore collection techniques to include more detailing of the interview context.[44] This was a significant move away from viewing the collected artifacts as isolated fragments, broken remnants of an incomplete pre-historic whole. Using these new interviewing techniques, the collected lore became embedded in and imbued with meaning within the framework of its contemporary practice. The emphasis moved from the lore to the folk, i.e. the groups and the people who gave this lore meaning within contemporary daily living.
German folklore in the Third Reich
In Europe during these same decades, folklore studies were drifting in a different direction. Throughout the 19th century folklore had been tied to romantic ideals of the soul of the people, in which folk tales and folksongs recounted the lives and exploits of ethnic folk heroes. Folklore chronicled the mythical origins of different peoples across Europe and established the beginnings of national pride. By the first decade of the 20th century there were scholarly societies as well as individual folklore positions within universities, academies, and museums. However, the study of German Volkskunde had yet to be defined as an academic discipline.[citation needed]
In the 1920s this originally apolitical movement[
In the postwar years, departments of folklore were established in multiple German universities. However an analysis of just how folklore studies supported the policies of the Third Reich did not begin until 20 years after World War II in West Germany.[48] Particularly in the works of Hermann Bausinger and Wolfgang Emmerich in the 1960s, it was pointed out that the vocabulary current in Volkskunde was ideally suited for the kind of ideology that the National Socialists had built up.[49] It was then another 20 years before convening the 1986 Munich conference on folklore and National Socialism. This continues to be a difficult and painful discussion within the German folklore community.[48]
After World War II
Following World War II, the discussion continued about whether to align folklore studies with literature or ethnology. Within this discussion, many voices were actively trying to identify the optimal approach to take in the analysis of folklore artifacts. One major change had already been initiated by Franz Boas. Culture was no longer viewed in evolutionary terms; each culture has its own integrity and completeness, and was not progressing either toward wholeness or toward fragmentation. Individual artifacts must have meaning within the culture and for individuals themselves in order to assume
and more.In this period, folklore came to refer to the event of doing something within a given context, for a specific audience, using artifacts as necessary props in the communication of traditions between individuals and within groups.[50] Beginning in the 1970s, these new areas of folklore studies became articulated in performance studies, where traditional behaviors are evaluated and understood within the context of their performance. It is the meaning within the social group that becomes the focus for these folklorists, foremost among them Richard Baumann[51] and Barbara Kirshenblatt-Gimblett.[52] Enclosing any performance is a framework which signals that the following is something outside of ordinary communication. For example, "So, have you heard the one…" automatically flags the following as a joke. A performance can take place either within a cultural group, re-iterating and re-enforcing the customs and beliefs of the group. Or it can be performance for an outside group, in which the first goal is to set the performers apart from the audience.[53]
This analysis then goes beyond the artifact itself, be it dance, music or story-telling. It goes beyond the performers and their message. As part of performance studies, the audience becomes part of the performance. If any folklore performance strays too far from audience expectations, it will likely be brought back by means of a negative feedback loop at the next iteration.[54] Both performer and audience are acting within the "Twin Laws" of folklore transmission, in which novelty and innovation is balanced by the conservative forces of the familiar.[55] Even further, the presence of a folklore observer at a performance of any kind will influence the performance itself in subtle and not-so-subtle ways. Because folklore is firstly an act of communication between parties, it is incomplete without inclusion of the reception in its analysis. The understanding of folklore performance as communication leads directly into modern linguistic theory and communication studies. Words both reflect and shape our worldview. Oral traditions, particularly in their stability over generations and even centuries, provide significant insight into the ways in which insiders of a culture see, understand, and express their responses to the world around them.[56][note 6]
Three major approaches to folklore interpretation were developed during the second half of the 20th century. Structuralism in folklore studies attempts to define the structures underlying oral and customary folklore.[note 7] Once classified, it was easy for structural folklorists to lose sight of the overarching issue: what are the characteristics which keep a form constant and relevant over multiple generations? Functionalism in folklore studies also came to the fore following World War II; as spokesman, William Bascom formulated the 4 functions of folklore. This approach takes a more top-down approach to understand how a specific form fits into and expresses meaning within the culture as a whole.[note 8] A third method of folklore analysis, popular in the late 20th century, is the Psychoanalytic Interpretation,[57] championed by Alan Dundes. His monographs, including a study of homoerotic subtext in American football[58] and anal-erotic elements in German folklore,[59] were not always appreciated and involved Dundes in several major folklore studies controversies during his career. True to each of these approaches, and any others one might want to employ (political, women's issues, material culture, urban contexts, non-verbal text, ad infinitum), whichever perspective is chosen will spotlight some features and leave other characteristics in the shadows.
With the passage in 1976 of the American Folklife Preservation Act, folklore studies in the United States came of age. This legislation follows in the footsteps of other legislation designed to safeguard more tangible aspects of our
Global folklore studies
Folklore studies and nationalism in Turkey
Folklore interest sparked in Turkey around the second half of the nineteenth century when the need to determine a national language came about. Their writings consisted of vocabulary and grammatical rule from the Arabic and Persian language. Although the Ottoman intellectuals were not affected by the communication gap, in 1839, the Tanzimat reform introduced a change to Ottoman literature. A new generation of writers with contact to the West, especially France, noticed the importance of literature and its role in the development of institutions. Following the models set by Westerners, the new generation of writers returned to Turkey bringing the ideologies of novels, short stories, plays and journalism with them. These new forms of literature were set to enlighten the people of Turkey, influencing political and social change within the country. However, the lack of understanding for the language of their writings limited their success in enacting change.
Using the language of the "common people" to create literature, influenced the Tanzimat writers to gain interest in folklore and folk literature. In 1859, writer Sinasi Bozalti, wrote a play in simple enough language that it could be understood by the masses. He later produced a collection of four thousand proverbs. Many other poets and writers throughout the Turkish nation began to join in on the movement including Ahmet Midhat Efendi who composed short stories based on the proverbs written by Sinasi. These short stories, like many folk stories today, were intended to teach moral lessons to its readers.
Folklore studies in Chile
The study of folklore in Chile was developed in a systematic and pioneering way since the late 19th century. In the work of compiling the popular traditions of the Chilean people and of the original peoples, they stood out, not only in the study of national folklore, but also in Latin America.[citation needed] Ramón Laval, Julio Vicuña, Rodolfo Lenz, José Toribio Medina, Tomás Guevara, Félix de Augusta, and Aukanaw, among others, generated an important documentary and critical corpus around oral literature, autochthonous languages, regional dialects, and peasant and indigenous customs. They published, mainly during the first decades of the 20th century, linguistic and philological studies, dictionaries, comparative studies between the national folklores of Ibero-America, compilations of stories, poetry, and religious traditions. In 1909, at the initiative of Laval, Vicuña and Lenz, the Chilean Folklore Society was founded, the first of its kind in America. Two years later, it would merge with the recently created Chilean Society of History and Geography.[61]
21st century
With the advent of the
Globalization
The United States is known[by whom?] as a land of immigrants; with the exception of the first Indian nations, everyone originally came from somewhere else. Americans are proud of their cultural diversity. For folklorists, this country represents a trove of cultures rubbing elbows with each other, mixing and matching into exciting combinations as new generations come up. It is in the study of their folklife that we begin to understand the cultural patterns underlying the different ethnic groups. Language and customs provide a window into their view of reality. "The study of varying worldviews among ethnic and national groups in America remains one of the most important unfinished tasks for folklorists and anthropologists."[62][note 9]
Contrary to a widespread concern, we are not seeing a loss of diversity and increasing cultural homogenization across the land.[note 10] In fact, critics of this theory point out that as different cultures mix, the cultural landscape becomes multifaceted with the intermingling of customs. People become aware of other cultures and pick and choose different items to adopt from each other. One noteworthy example of this is the Jewish Christmas Tree, a point of some contention among American Jews.
Public sector folklore was introduced into the American Folklore Society in the early 1970s. These public folklorists work in museums and cultural agencies to identify and document the diverse folk cultures and folk artists in their region. Beyond this, they provide performance venues for the artists, with the twin objectives of entertainment and education about different ethnic groups. Given the number of folk festivals held around the world, it becomes clear that the cultural multiplicity of a region is presented with pride and excitement. Public folklorists are increasingly being involved in economic and community development projects to elucidate and clarify differing world views of the social groups impacted by the projects.[8]
Computerized databases and big data
Once folklore artifacts have been recorded on the World Wide Web, they can be collected in large electronic databases and even moved into collections of big data. This compels folklorists to find new ways to collect and curate these data.[63] Along with these new challenges, electronic data collections provide the opportunity to ask different questions, and combine with other academic fields to explore new aspects of traditional culture.[64] Computational humor is just one new field that has taken up the traditional oral forms of jokes and anecdotes for study, holding its first dedicated conference in 1996. This takes us beyond gathering and categorizing large joke collections. Scholars are using computers firstly to recognize jokes in context,[65] and further to attempt to create jokes using artificial intelligence.
Binary thinking of the computer age
As we move forward in the digital age, the binary thinking of the 20th century structuralists remains an important tool in the folklorist's toolbox.[66] This does not mean that binary thinking was invented in recent times along with computers; only that we became aware of both the power and the limitations of the "either/or" construction. In folklore studies, the multiple binaries underlying much of the theoretical thinking have been identified – {dynamicism : conservatism}, {anecdote : myth}, {process : structure}, {performance : tradition}, {improvisation : repetition}, {variation : traditionalism}, {repetition : innovation};[67] not to overlook the original binary of the first folklorists: {traditional : modern} or {old : new}. Bauman re-iterates this thought pattern in claiming that at the core of all folklore is the dynamic tension between tradition and variation (or creativity).[68] Noyes[69] uses similar vocabulary to define [folk] group as "the ongoing play and tension between, on the one hand, the fluid networks of relationship we constantly both produce and negotiate in everyday life and, on the other, the imagined communities we also create and enact but that serve as forces of stabilizing allegiance."[70]
This thinking only becomes problematic in light of the theoretical work done on binary opposition, which exposes the values intrinsic to any binary pair. Typically, one of the two opposites assumes a role of dominance over the other. The categorization of binary oppositions is "often value-laden and ethnocentric", imbuing them with illusory order and superficial meaning.[71]
Linear and non-linear concepts of time
Another baseline of western thought has also been thrown into disarray in the recent past. In western culture, we live in a time of
Awareness has grown that different cultures have different concepts of time (and space). In his study "The American Indian Mind in a Linear World", Donald Fixico describes an alternate concept of time. "Indian thinking" involves "'seeing' things from a perspective emphasizing that circles and cycles are central to world and that all things are related within the Universe." He then suggests that "the concept of time for Indian people has been such a continuum that time becomes less relevant and the rotation of life or seasons of the year are stressed as important."[74][note 11] In a more specific example, the folklorist Barre Toelken describes the Navajo as living in circular times, which is echoed and re-enforced in their sense of space, the traditional circular or multi-sided hogan.[75] Lacking the European mechanistic devices of marking time (clocks, watches, calendars), they depended on the cycles of nature: sunrise to sunset, winter to summer. Their stories and histories are not marked by decades and centuries, but remain close in, as they circle around the constant rhythms of the natural world.
Within the last decades our time scale has expanded from unimaginably small (
Cybernetics
Cybernetics was first developed in the 20th century; it investigates the functions and processes of systems. The goal in cybernetics is to identify and understand a system's closed signaling loop, in which an action by the system generates a change in the environment, which in turn triggers feedback to the system and initiates a new action. The field has expanded from a focus on mechanistic and biological systems to an expanded recognition that these theoretical constructs can also be applied to many cultural and societal systems, including folklore.[77] Once divorced from a model of tradition that works solely on a linear time scale (i.e. moving from one folklore performance to the next), we begin to ask different questions about how these folklore artifacts maintain themselves over generations and centuries.
The oral tradition of
Another characteristic of cybernetics and autopoiesis is self-generation within a system. Once again looking to jokes, we find new jokes generated in response to events on a continuing basis. The folklorist Bill Ellis accessed internet humor message boards to observe in real time the creation of
Second-order cybernetics states that the system observer affects the systemic interplay; this interplay has long been recognized as problematic by folklorists. The act of observing and noting any folklore performance raises without exception the performance from an unconscious habitual acting within a group, to and for themselves, to a performance for an outsider. "Naturally the researcher's presence changes things, in the way that any new entrant to a social setting changes things. When people of different backgrounds, agendas, and resources interact, there are social risks, and where representation and publication are taking place, these risks are exacerbated..."[80][note 13]
Scholarly organizations and journals
Notable folklorists
For a list of notable folklorists, go to the category list.
Associated theories and methods
- Cultural Heritage
- Environmental Determinism
- Ethnology
- Ethnopoetics, a method of recording text versions of oral poetry or narrative performances (i.e., verbal lore)
- Fine Art
- Functionalism (philosophy of mind)
- Mimesis
- Motif-Index of Folk-Literature
- Museum folklore
- Performance Studies
- Romantic Nationalism
- Social Evolution
- Structuralism
See also
Notes
- Simon Bronner.[4]
- ^ In a more dramatic and less technical approach, Henry Glassie describes the tools of the folklore trade: "[Folklorists were the] hunters and gatherers of academe…still rooting about in reality, hunting down and gathering up facts that we brought back alive. In those days [the 1960s] … we were delighted to be allowed to enter the university, set up camp, and practice our humble, archaic trade. They had let us in and we honored the established disciplines around us by stealing all we could. While the more advanced people around us slept, we slid in the shadows past their fires, rifled their baggage, stole their books, learned their language, and came to be able to ape their culture in a way that we at least found convincing. In our excitement we did not stop to ponder whether their theories sorted well with our traditional preoccupations. We learned the schemes of those we perceived to be higher in the academic hierarchy than ourselves, then applied those schemes to our own topics. We felt mature.[20]
- ^ Charles Darwin published On the Origin of Species in 1859.
- ^ Anderson is best known for his monograph Kaiser und Abt (Folklore Fellows' Communications 42, Helsinki 1923) on folktales of type AT 922.[39]
- ^ In his study Erbschaft dieser Zeit (1935) (translation Heritage of Our Times, Polity, 1991) Ernst Bloch examined how the mythological way of scholarly thought of the 19th century was revived by the National Socialists.
- ^ In his chapter "Folklore and Cultural Worldview", Toelken provides an illuminating comparison of the worldview of European Americans with Navajos. In the use of language, the two cultural groups express widely differing understandings of their spatial and temporal place in the universe.
- ^ For example, a joke uses words within a specific and well-defined narrative structure to make people laugh. A fable uses anthropomorphized animals and natural features to illustrate a moral lesson, frequently concluding with a moral. These are just a few of the many formulaic structures used in oral traditions.
- ^ An example of this are the joke cycles that spontaneously appear in response to a national or world tragedy or disaster.
- ^ See also Dundes (2005), p. 387. [Folklore studies is] "a discipline which has been ahead of its time in recognizing the importance of folklore in promoting ethnic pride and in providing invaluable data for the discovery of native cognitive categories and patterns of worldview and values."
- ^ The newness of this discussion can be seen in the references for Cultural homogenization; all sources listed have been published in 21st century.
- ^ This blanket interpretation has been questioned by some as too simplistic in its sweeping application to all Native American tribes. See Rouse (2012), p. 14ff.
- ^ The earliest recorded joke is on an Egyptian papyrus dated at 1600 B.C. See Joke#History in print.
- ^ For a further discussion of this, see also Schmidt-Lauber (2012), p. 362ff.
Citations
- ^ Widdowson 2016.
- ^ Dundes 2005, p. 386.
- ^ Dundes 1978a.
- ^ Bronner 1986, p. xi.
- ^ Brunvand 1996, p. 286.
- ^ "UNESCO Recommendation 1989".
- ^ "Public Law 94-201 (The Creation of the American Folklife Center, Library of Congress)". Library of Congress.
- ^ a b c d e Hufford 1991.
- ^ Dundes 1969, p. 13, footnote 34.
- ^ Wilson 2006, p. 85.
- ^ Dundes 2007, p. 273.
- ^ Dundes 1972.
- ^ a b Sims & Stephens 2005, p. 7.
- ^ Zumwalt & Dundes 1988.
- ^ Levy & Murphy 1991, p. 43.
- ^ Šmidchens 1999, p. 52.
- ^ Dorson 1976.
- ^ Wilson 2006, pp. 81–106.
- ^ Dorson 1972, p. 6.
- ^ Glassie 1983, p. 128.
- ^ Bauman & Paredes 1972, p. xx.
- ^ Georges & Jones 1995, p. 35.
- ^ a b Sims & Stephens 2005, p. 23.
- ^ Sims & Stephens 2005, pp. 22–23.
- ^ Watson 1850–1860, p. [page needed].
- ^ Sims & Stephens 2005, pp. 23–24.
- ^ Georges & Jones 1995, p. 40.
- ^ Josephson-Storm 2017, p. 129.
- ^ Bronner 1986, p. 17.
- ^ Georges & Jones 1995, p. 32.
- ^ Bronner 1986, p. 11.
- ^ Dundes 2005, p. 402.
- ^ Bronner 1986, p. 5.
- ^ Bronner 1986, pp. 21–22.
- ^ Morgan 1988, p. 156.
- ^ Georges & Jones 1995, p. 54.
- ^ Wolf-Knuts 1999.
- ^ Dorst 2016, p. 131.
- ^ a b Anderson 1923.
- ^ Josephson-Storm 2017, p. 128.
- ^ Josephson-Storm 2017, pp. 128–130.
- ^ Zumwalt & Dundes 1988, pp. 16–20.
- ^ Sims & Stephens 2005, pp. 10, 25.
- ^ Sims & Stephens 2005, p. 25.
- ^ Dorson 1972, p. 15.
- ^ Bendix 1998, p. 240.
- ^ Bendix 1997, p. 163.
- ^ a b Lixfeld & Dow 1994.
- ^ Lixfeld & Dow 1994, p. 11.
- ^ Bauman & Paredes 1972, p. xv.
- ^ Bauman 1975.
- ^ Kirshenblatt-Gimblett 1999.
- ^ Bauman 1971, p. 45.
- ^ Dorst 2016, p. 139.
- ^ Toelken 1996, pp. 39–40.
- ^ Toelken 1996, p. 226.
- ^ Sims & Stephens 2005, p. 187ff..
- ^ Dundes 1978b.
- ^ Dundes 1984.
- Smithsonian. Archived from the originalon 9 June 2020.
- ^ "Sociedad Chilena de Historia y Geografía". Memoria Chilena (in Spanish).
- ^ Toelken 1996, p. 297.
- ^ Dundes 2005, p. 401.
- ^ Dorst 2016, p. 142.
- ^ Sacks 1974, pp. 337–353.
- ^ Sims & Stephens 2005, pp. 184–187.
- ^ Dorst 2016, p. 133.
- ^ Bauman 2008, pp. 31–32.
- ^ Noyes 2003.
- ^ Dorst 2016, p. 134.
- ^ Goody 1977, p. 36.
- ^ Toelken 1996, pp. 271–274.
- ^ Dorst 2016, pp. 128–129.
- ^ Rouse 2012, p. 4.
- ^ Toelken 1996, pp. 275ff.
- ^ Dorst 2016, pp. 131–132.
- ^ Dorst 2016.
- ^ Dorst 2016, p. 132.
- ^ Ellis 2002, p. 2.
- ^ "AFS Position Statement on Research with Human Subjects". American Folklore Society.
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{{cite book}}
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- Raskin, Victor, ed. (2008). Primer of Humor Research: Humor Research 8. Berlin, New York: Mouton de Gruyter.
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(help) - Sacks, Harvey (1974). "An Analysis of the Course of a Joke's telling in Conversation". In Bauman, Richard; Sherzer, Joel (eds.). Explorations in the Ethnography of Speaking. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 337–353.
- Sawin, Patricia; Zumwalt, Rosemary (2020). Folklore in the United States and Canada: An Institutional History. Indiana University Press.
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- Šmidchens, Guntis (1999). "Folklorism Revisited". JSTOR 3814813.
- Stahl, Sandra D. (1989). Literary Folkloristics and the Personal Narrative. Bloomington: ISBN 978-0915305483.
- Toelken, Barre (1996). The Dynamics of Folklore. Logan, UT: Utah State University Press.
- Watson, John F. (1850–1860). Annals of Philadelphia and Pennsylvania, in the olden time. Philadelphia: The author.
- Widdowson, J. D. A. (2016). "England, National Folklore Survey". Folklore. 127 (3): 257–269. S2CID 151463190.
- Wilson, William (2006). "Essays on Folklore by William A. Wilson". In Rudy, Jill Terry; Call, Diane (eds.). The Marrow of Human Experience: Essays on Folklore. University Press of Colorado. JSTOR j.ctt4cgkmk.
- Wolf-Knuts, Ulrika (1999). "On the history of comparison in folklore studies". Folklore Fellows' Summer School.
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External links
- A Guide to Conducting Ethnographic Research (PDF). Archived 2016-05-08 at the Wayback Machine.
- Introduction to Ethnographic Research, 101: The Basics (PDF) (archived 26 April 2012)
- "What is Folklore?" from Utah State University (archived 26 April 2012)