Forensic identification
Forensic identification is the application of forensic science, or "forensics", and technology to identify specific objects from the trace evidence they leave, often at a crime scene or the scene of an accident. Forensic means "for the courts".
Human identification
People can be identified by their
Friction ridge identification is also governed by four premises or statements of facts:
- Friction ridges develop on the fetus in their definitive form prior to birth.
- Friction ridges are persistent throughout life except for permanent scarring, disease, or decomposition after death.
- Friction ridge paths and the details in small areas of friction ridges are unique and never repeated.
- Overall, friction ridge patterns vary within limits which allow for classification.
People can also be identified from traces of their DNA from blood, skin, hair, saliva, and semen
Since forensic identification has been first introduced to the courts in 1980, the first exoneration due to DNA evidence was in 1989 and there have been 336 additional exonerations since then.[2][3] Those who specialize in forensic identification continue to make headway with new discoveries and technological advances to make convictions more accurate.[4][5]
Foot creases
Feet also have friction ridges like fingerprints do. Friction ridges have been widely accepted as a form of identification with fingerprints but not entirely with feet. Feet have creases which remain over time due to the depth it reaches in the dermal layer of the skin, making them permanent.[6] These creases are valuable when individualizing the owner. The concept of no two fingerprints are alike is also applied to foot creases.[7] Foot creases can grow as early as 13 weeks after conception when the volar pads begin to grow and when the pads regress, the creases remain.[8][9] When foot crease identification is used in a criminal case, it should be used in conjunction with morphology and friction ridges to ensure precise identification. There is record of foot crease identification used in a criminal case to solve a murder.[6][10] Sometimes with marks left by the foot with ink, blood, mud, or other substances, the appearance of creases or ridges become muddled or extra creases may appear due to cracked skin, folded skin, or fissures. In order to truly compare morphological feature, the prints of feet must be clear enough to distinguish between individuals.
Downfalls
The two basic conceptual foundations of forensic identification are that everyone is individualized and unique.
Primary methods
According to Interpol,[13] there are 3 primary methods to human identification: Friction Ridge Analysis, Forensic Odontology, and DNA Analysis.
Friction ridge analysis
Fingerprints from the hands and feet are unique and remain unchanged (unless major external factors are involved) from birth to death. Even with minor injuries, they regenerate following the same pattern. [14]
Considering the existence of databases in states and countries worldwide containing records of fingerprints from their residents, there is the possibility of searching and comparing fingerprints. This enables an accurate comparison for victim identification. [14]
Odontology analysis
Forensic odontology (dentistry) plays an important role in human identification, especially in cases where individuals are in an advanced stage of decomposition, charred, or skeletonized. This is due to the high resistance of teeth, which can remain intact even after exposure to harsh conditions.[14]
Considering that many people have visited a dentist and have dental records, there is the possibility of retrieving this data for comparison with post-mortem examination data. Such a method enables quick, cost-effective, and reliable identification.[14][15][16]
The most commonly used ante-mortem data are dental X-rays, dental models, and dental records. However, these data rely on the existence of dental records registered by a dentist. Nevertheless, even if a person does not have such records, a photograph of their smile or an old dental prosthesis can be used for comparison.[15][16][17][18][19][20]
DNA identification
Forensic
DNA can be sourced from
The first step in the DNA process with a piece of evidence is
An unknown sample found at a crime scene is called a questioned sample. A known sample can be taken either from a suspect or found in a database. The FBI’s database used for DNA is CODIS, Combined DNA Index System. It has data at three levels: local, state, and national. The national level data is stored in NDIS, National DNA Index system. CODIS/NDIS allows analysts to compare their questioned DNA profile among those of arrestees, convicted offenders, and other unknown samples to try and produce investigative leads.[24] If questioned and known samples are similar, statistics and interpretation will then be completed. The DNA profile will be compared to a population database and a random match probability will be determined. Random match probability is defined as the chance that an individual selected randomly from a population will have an identical DNA profile to the markers tested.[21] If they do not equal each other, they are not a match, termed exclusion.
During
The
Since DNA was first used in a criminal investigation in 1986, it has aided investigators to solve many cases. DNA profiling is one of the most important tools in forensics and continued research will increase its ability and accuracy to provide more techniques for the future.[25]
Animal identification
Wildlife forensics
There are many different applications for
Species identification: The importance of
Determination of geographic origin: Determining the origin of a certain species aids research in population numbers and lineage data.[26] Phylogenetic studies are most often used to find the broad geographic area of which a species reside.[30] For example, in California seahorses were being sold for traditional medicinal purposes and the phylogenetic data of those seahorses led researchers to find their origin and from which population they came from and what species they were.[31] In addition to phylogenetic data, assignment tests are used to find the probability of a species belonging to or originating from a specific population and genetic markers of a specimen are utilized.[32][33][34][35] These types of tests are most accurate when all potential population's data have been gathered. Statistical analyses are used in assignment tests based on an individual's microsatellites or Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphisms (AFLPs).[32][35][36][37] Using microsatellites in these studies is more favorable than AFLPs because the AFLPs required non-degraded tissue samples and higher errors have been reported when using AFLPs.[36][38]
Domestic animal forensics
Domestic animals such as dogs and cats can be utilized to help solve criminal cases. These can include homicides, sexual assaults, or robberies. DNA evidence from dogs alone have helped over 20 criminal cases in Great Britain and the U.S. since 1996.[39] However, there are very few laboratories that are able to process and analyze evidence or data from domestic animals.[40] Forensics can be used in animal attacks as well. In cases such as dog attacks, the hair, blood, and saliva surrounding the wounds a victim has can be analyzed to find a match for the attacker.[41] In the competitive realm, DNA analysis is used in many cases to find illegal substances in racehorses by urine samples and comparisons of STRs.[42][43][44]
Product identification
- computer printers steganographicallyembed their identification number as a countermeasure against currency forgeries.
- Documents are characterized by the composition of their paper and ink.
- striations on the bulletsthey fired and imprints on the cartridge casings.
- Paper shredders can be potentially identified in a similar way, by spacing and wear of their blades.
- Photo identification is used to detect and identify forged digital photos.[48]
- Typewriters can be identified by minor variations of positioning and wear of their letters.
- Illegal drugs can be identified by which color it turns when a reagent is added during a color test. Gas Chromatography, Infrared Spectrometry or Mass Spectrometry is used in combination with the color test to identify the type of drug.[49]
Networks
- Cars can be automatically found on automatic number plate recognition.
- Computers connected to the Internet can often be identified by their IP address or MAC address.
- Radio transceivers can be potentially identified by minute variations of their output signal.
- Social networks can be discovered by network analysisof banking, telecommunication and postal records.
Applications
Sometimes,
Organizations
- Association of Firearm and Tool Mark Examiners
- Canadian Identification Society
- International Association for Identification
See also
- Biometric identification
- Computer forensics
- Data remanence
- Digital traces
- Entomological evidence collection
- Forensic anthropology
- Forensic dentistry (odontology)
- Forensic engineering
- Forensic profiling
- Forensic science
- Identification (biology)
- Mass surveillance
- Privacy
- Surveillance
- Trace evidence
- Questioned Document Examination
References
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- ^ "Exonerate the Innocent". Innocence Project. Archived from the original on 2 February 2017.
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- ^ "Forensic Science Laws Database". NCSL: National Conference of State Legislatures. August 2014. Retrieved 1 February 2016.
- ^ a b Massey SL (2004). "Persistence of creases of the foot and their value for forensic identification purposes". Journal of Forensic Identification. 54 (3): 296.
- ^ Blake JW (1959). "Identification of the New Born by Flexure Creases". Journal of Language, Identity & Education. 9 (9): 3–5.
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- ^ R. vs. Ybo Airut Jr. Manslaughter Conviction registered in Nunavut Court of Justice, Rankin Inlet, Nunavut Territory, Canada. April 23, 2002 (Offense occurred on December 19, 2000.)
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- ^ Cummins H, Midlo C (1961). Finger Prints, Palms and Soles: An Introduction to Dermatoglyphics. New York: Dover Publications.
- ^ INTERPOL (2018). Disaster Victim Identification Guide. p. 18.
- ^ a b c d INTERPOL (2018). Annexure 12: method of identification. Disaster Victim Identification Guide : INTERPOL 2018. p. 2.
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- ^ a b Minor J (12 April 2013). "Touch DNA: From the Crime Scene to the Crime Laboratory". Forensic Magazine. Archived from the original on 8 November 2018. Retrieved 2018-11-07.
- ^ "DNA Evidence: How It's Done". www.forensicsciencesimplified.org. Retrieved 2018-11-07.
- ^ "What is CODIS?". National Institute of Justice. Retrieved 2018-11-07.
- ^ Murnaghan I (20 August 2014). "Understanding Forensic Identification". www.exploredna.co.uk. Retrieved 2018-11-07.
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- ^ a b Randi E (2000). Baker AJ (ed.). "Mitochondrial DNA". Molecular Methods in Ecology. Malden: Blackwell Science.
- ^ Vandamme A (2003). Salemi M, Vandamme A (eds.). "Basic concepts of molecular evolution". The Phylogenetic Handbook. A Practical Approach to DNA and Protein Phylogeny. New York: Cambridge University Press.
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- ^ DeYoung RW, Demarais S, Honeycutt RL, Gonzales RA, Gee KL, Anderson JD (2003). "Evaluation of a DNA microsatellite panel useful for genetic exclusion studies in white-tailed deer". Wildlife Society Bulletin. 31: 220–232.
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- ^ Cattle Molecular Markers and Parentage Testing Workshop (PDF). ISAG Conference. Amsterdam, the Netherlands: International Society for Animal Genetics. 2008.
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- ^ "Printer forensics to aid homeland security, tracing counterfeiters". News Service. Purdue University. 12 October 2004. Archived from the original on 7 June 2005.
- ^ Viegas J (18 October 2004). "Computer Printers Can Catch Terrorists". Discovery Channel. Archived from the original on 2005-06-09.
- ^ Pellett JD (March 2004). "The Use of Diffuse Reflectance Infrared Fourier Transform Spectroscopy (DRIFTS) in Identifying and Classifying Photocopying Toners". Denison University. Archived from the original on 2007-04-28. Retrieved 2007-01-22.
- ^ Huang Y, Long Y (2008). "Demosaicking Recognition with Applications in Digital Photo Authentication based on a Quadratic Pixel Correlation Model" (PDF). Proc. IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition: 1–8. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2010-06-17.
- ^ O'Keefe B. "Drug Identification Unit". Law Enforcement Services. Wisconsin Department of Justice. Archived from the original on 25 April 2012. Retrieved 2011-12-12.
External links
- bio-forensics.com, bioFORENSICS - Tools for forensic identification
- Onin.com, Forensic Fingerprinting
- Cis.sci.ca, Canadian Identification Society