Francis Amasa Walker
Francis Amasa Walker | |
---|---|
President of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology | |
In office 1881–1897 | |
Preceded by | John Daniel Runkle |
Succeeded by | James Crafts |
Commissioner of the Bureau of Indian Affairs | |
In office 1871–1872 | |
President | Ulysses S. Grant |
Preceded by | Ely S. Parker |
Succeeded by | Edward Parmelee Smith |
Signature | |
Francis Amasa Walker (July 2, 1840 – January 5, 1897) was an American
Walker was born into a prominent Boston family, the son of the economist and politician
Following the war, Walker served on the editorial staff of the
As an economist, Walker debunked the
Walker accepted the presidency of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1881, a position he held for fifteen years until his death. During his tenure, he placed the institution on more stable financial footing by aggressively fund-raising and securing grants from the Massachusetts government, implemented many curricular reforms, oversaw the launch of new academic programs, and expanded the size of the Boston campus, faculty, and student enrollments. MIT's Walker Memorial Hall, a former students' clubhouse and one of the original buildings on the Charles River campus, was dedicated to him in 1916. Walker's reputation today is a subject of controversy due to his anti-immigration views, white supremacist views, and his brief association with the U.S. Bureau of Indian Affairs.[4][5][6]
Background
Walker was born in
Beginning his schooling at the age of seven, Walker studied Latin at various private and public schools in Brookfield before being sent to the Leicester Academy when he was twelve.
Military service
15th Massachusetts Infantry
As tensions between the North and South increased over the winter of 1860–1861, Walker equipped himself and began drilling with Major Devens' 3rd Battalion of Rifles in Worcester and New York. Despite his older brother Robert serving in the 34th Massachusetts Infantry,
Second Army Corps
Walker remained at the
After extensive reorganization during the winter of 1863–1864, Walker and the Army of the Potomac fought in the
Walker returned to North Brookfield to recuperate and resigned his commission on January 8, 1865, as a result of his injuries and health.
After the war, Walker became a companion of the Massachusetts Commandery of the Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States. Based upon his experiences in the military, Walker published two books describing the history of II Corps (1886) as well as a biography of General Winfield Scott Hancock (1884).[35] Walker was elected Commander of the Massachusetts Commandery of the Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States in 1883 was also the president of the National Military Historical Association.[36]
Postbellum activity
By late spring 1865, Walker regained sufficient strength and began to assist his father by lecturing on political economy at Amherst as well as assisting him in the preparation of The Science of Wealth. He also taught Latin, Greek, and mathematics at the Williston Seminary in
1870 Census
While his editorial career was moving forward, Walker called upon his own as well as his father's political contacts to secure an appointment under
Owing to the confluence of these problems, the Census was completed and tabulated several months behind schedule to much popular criticism, and led indirectly to a deterioration in Walker's health during the spring of 1871.[44][45] Walker took leave to travel to England with Bowles that summer to recuperate and upon return that fall, despite an offer from The New York Times to join their editorial board with an annual salary of $8,000 ($160,300 in 2016),[46] accepted Secretary Columbus Delano's offer to become the U.S. Commissioner of Indian Affairs in November 1871.[47] The appointment was simultaneously a go-around to continue to fund Walker's federal responsibilities as Census superintendent despite Congress' cessation of appropriations for the position as well as a political opportunity to replace a scandal-ridden predecessor.[45][48] Walker continued to work on the Census for several years thereafter, culminating in the publication of the Statistical Atlas of the United States that was unprecedented in its use of visual statistics and maps to report the results of the Census.[49] The Atlas won him praise from both the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution as well as a First Class medal from the International Geographical Congress.[50][51]
Indian Bureau
Despite his census-related efforts, Walker did not neglect his obligations as Indian affairs superintendent. However, Walker's frustration with the treatment of Native Americans caused his resignation after only one year on December 26, 1872, to take a faculty position at Yale. During his brief assignment, he collected demographic information on native tribes and on the history of conflict and treaties, which he published in 1874 as a book titled The Indian Question. More than half of the book is dedicated to an appendix with descriptions of over 100 tribes which he describes as including 300,000 natives, the majority of which were living on existing government reservations.[52] The remainder of the work proposes policy options for future government actions.
A central theme of Walker's book is to consider two options for future relationships to the Native Americans: seclusion on reservations or citizenship. He warns that the current reservation system is failing due to unabated illegal incursion into the native lands. He provides examples of how the alternative of immediate full assimilation as citizens is damaging native culture, quality of life, and dignity. Walker's conclusions are that assimilation as citizens must be the ultimate end goal, but to accomplish this in an orderly manner over time requires protection of the indigenous population “under the shell of the reservation system.”[53] He proposes detailed recommendations including consolidation of the existing 92 reservations into fewer larger units; laws and enforcement to stop settler incursions; government sponsored training programs within the reservations; and ongoing federal financial support based on an endowment and not annual appropriations.[54]
Walker makes a number of moral arguments to support reparations for past actions toward Native Americans, including : “We may have no fear that the dying curse of the red man, outcast and homeless by our fault, will bring barrenness upon the soil that once was his, or dry the streams of the beautiful land that, through so much of evil and of good, has become our patrimony; but surely we shall be clearer in our lives, and freer to meet the glances of our sons and grandsons, if in our generation we do justice and show mercy to a race which has been impoverished that we might be made rich.”[55] He elevated the treatment of the natives to be one of the great issues of the time: “The United States will be judged at the bar of history according to what they shall have done in two respects, -by their disposition of negro slavery, and by their treatment of the Indians.”[56]
Other engagements
1876 was a busy year for Walker.
Walker's rise to prominence was further accelerated by his appointment by
1880 Census
Walker accepted a re-appointment as the superintendent of the
Social Darwinism
Walker was a strong believer in social Darwinism. In 1896, he wrote an article in the Atlantic Monthly titled "Restriction of Immigration," in which he said immigrants from Austria, Italy, Hungary, and Russia were nothing more than "vast masses of peasantry, degraded below our utmost conceptions . . . beaten men from beaten races, representing the worst failures in the struggle for existence."[6] He said that without racial immigration restrictions, "every foul and stagnant pool of population in Europe, [in] which no breath of intellectual life has stirred for ages ... [will] be decanted upon our shores."[4] He argued that immigration to the United States would entail "race-suicide" for Anglo-Saxons.[4] He advocated for eugenics.[4]
According to historian Mae Ngai, Walker believed the United States "possessed a natural character and teleology, to which immigration was external and unnatural. [His] assumption resonated with conventional views about America's providential mission and the general march of progress. Yet, it was rooted in a profoundly conservative viewpoint that the composition of the American nation should never change."[6]
Walker's theories and writing were foundational for the American nativist movement.[6]
Academic career
As his Census obligations diminished in 1872, Walker reconsidered becoming an editorialist and even briefly entertained the idea of becoming a shoe manufacturer with his brother-in-law back in North Brookfield. However, in October 1872, he was unanimously offered to fill
Walker was awarded
Wages-fund theory
Walker's scholarly contributions are widely recognized as having broadened, liberalized, and modernized economic and statistical theory with his contributions to wages, wealth distribution, money, and social economics.
Henry George debates
Beginning in 1879, Walker and the political economist Henry George engaged in a prominent debate over economic rents, land, money, and taxes.[86][87] Based on a series of lectures delivered at Harvard, Walker published his Land and Its Rent in 1883 as a criticism of George's 1879 Progress and Poverty.[88] Walker's position on international bimetallism influenced his arguments that the primary cause of economic depressions was not land speculation, but rather constriction of the money supply.[89][90] Walker also criticized George's assumptions that technical progress was always labor saving and whether land held for speculation was unproductive or inefficient.[91]
Bimetallism
In August 1878, Walker represented the United States at the second International Monetary Conference in Paris while also attending the 1878 Exposition. Not only were the attempts by the United States to re-establish an international silver standard defeated, but Walker also had to scramble to complete the report on the Exposition in only four days. Although he returned to the U.S. in October disheartened by the failure of the conference and exhausted by his obligations at the Exposition, the trip had secured Walker a commanding national and international reputation.[92]
Walker published International Bimetallism in 1896 roundly critiquing the demonetization of silver out of political pressure and the impact of this change on prices and profits as well as worker employment and wages. Walker's reputation and position on the issue isolated him among public figures and made him a target in the press.
Other interests
Political Economy, the first edition published in 1883, was one of the most widely used textbooks of the 19th century as a component of the American Science Series.[96] Robert Solow criticized the third edition (1888) for being devoid of facts, figures, and mostly full of off-the-cuff judgments on the practices and capacities of Native Americans and immigrants, but generally embodying the state of the art of economics at the time.[97]
Walker also took an interest in demographics later in his career, particularly towards the issues of immigration and birth rates.
The entrance into our political, social, and industrial life of such vast masses of peasantry, degraded below our utmost conceptions, is a matter which no intelligent patriot can look upon without the gravest apprehension and alarm. These people have no history behind them which is of a nature to give encouragement. They have none of the inherited instincts and tendencies which made it comparatively easy to deal with the immigration of the olden time. They are beaten men from beaten races; representing the worst failures in the struggle for existence. Centuries are against them, as centuries were on the side of those who formerly came to us. They have none of the ideas and aptitudes which fit men to take up readily and easily the problem of self-care and self-government, such as belong to those who are descended from the tribes that met under the oak-trees of old Germany to make laws and choose chieftains.[100]
MIT presidency
Established in 1861 and opened in 1865, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) saw its financial stability severely undermined following the Panic of 1873 and subsequent Long Depression. Seventy-five-year-old founder William Barton Rogers was elected interim president in 1878 after John Daniel Runkle stepped down.[101] Rogers wrote Walker in June 1880 to offer him the Presidency, and Walker evidently debated the opportunity for some time as Rogers sent follow-up inquiries in January and February 1881 requesting his committed decision.[102] Walker ultimately accepted in early May and was formally elected president by the MIT Corporation on May 25, 1881, resigning his Yale appointment in June and his Census directorship in November.[103] However, the assassination attempt on President Garfield in July 1881 and the ensuing illness before Garfield's death in September upset Walker's transition and delayed his formal introduction to the faculty of MIT until November 5, 1881.[104] On May 30, 1882, during Walker's first Commencement exercises, Rogers died mid-speech where his last words were famously "bituminous coal".[105]
MIT's inability to secure a more stable financial footing during this era can largely be attributed to the existence of the
Aid and expansion
In light of the difficulties in raising capital for these expansions and despite MIT's privately endowed status, Walker and other members of the Corporation lobbied the Massachusetts legislature for a $200,000 grant to aid in the industrial development of the Commonwealth ($4,974,000 in 2016 dollars). After intensive negotiations that called upon Walker's extensive connections and civic experience, in 1887 the legislature made a grant of $300,000 over two years to the institute, which would lead to a total of $1.6 million in grants from the Commonwealth before the practice was discontinued in 1921.[109]
Walker sought to erect a new building to address the increasingly cramped conditions of the original
New programs were also launched under Walker's tenure: Electrical Engineering in 1882, Chemical Engineering in 1888, Sanitary Engineering in 1889, Geology in 1890, Naval Architecture in 1893.[113]
Reforms
Although Walker continued Census-related activities, he began to lecture on political economy as well as establishing a new general course of study (Course IX) emphasizing economics, history, law, English, and modern languages.[114] Walker also set out to reform and expand the institute's organization by creating a smaller Executive Committee, apart from the fifty-member Corporation, to handle regular administrative issues.[115] Walker emphasized the importance of faculty governance by regularly attending their meetings and seeking their advice on major decisions.[116]
Walker also sought to improve the state of student life and alumni relations by supporting the creation of a gymnasium, dormitories, and the Technology Club, which served to foster a stronger identity and loyalty among the largely commuter student body.[117] He also won considerable praise from the student body by reducing the required time spent for recitation and preparation, limiting the faculty to examinations lasting no longer than three hours, expanding entrance examinations to other cities, starting a summer curriculum, and launching masters and doctoral graduate degree programs. These reforms were largely a response to Walker's on-going defense of the Institute and its curriculum from outside accusations of overwork, poor writing, inapplicable skills, and status as a "mere" trade school.[118] Between 1881 and 1897, enrollments quadrupled from 302 to 1,198 students, annual degrees granted increased from 28 to 179, faculty appointments quadrupled from 38 to 156, and the endowment grew thirteenfold from $137,000 to $1,798,000 ($3,407,000 to $51,869,000 in 2016 dollars).[119][120]
While MIT is a private institution, Walker's extensive civic activities as president set the precedent for future presidents to use the post to fulfill civic and cultural obligations throughout Boston.[121] He served as a member of the Massachusetts Board of Education (1882–1890), Boston School Committee (1885–1888), Boston Art Commission (1885–1897), Boston Park Commission (1890–1896), Massachusetts Historical Society (1883–1897), and a trustee of the Boston Public Library in 1896.[72][73] Walker was committed to a variety of reforms in public and normal schools such as secular curricula, expanding the emphasis on arithmetic, reducing the emphasis on ineffectual home exercises, and increasing the pay and training of teachers.[122]
Personal life
Walker married Exene Evelyn Stoughton on August 16, 1865 (born October 11, 1840). They had five sons and two daughters together: Stoughton (b. June 3, 1866), Lucy (b. September 1, 1867), Francis (b. 1870–1871), Ambrose (b. December 28, 1870), Eveline (b. 1875–1876), Etheredge (b. 1876–1877), and Stuart (b. 1878–1879).[7] Walker was an avid spectator and supporter of college football and baseball, and was a regular Yale enthusiast at the annual Harvard-Yale football game, even during his MIT presidency.[123]
Following a trip to a dedication in the "wilderness of Northern New York" in December 1896, Walker returned exhausted and ill. He died on January 5, 1897, as a result of apoplexy.[124] His funeral service was conducted at Trinity Church, and Walker was buried at Walnut Grove cemetery in North Brookfield, Massachusetts.[125] His grave can be found in Section 1 Lot 72.
Legacy
Following Walker's death, alumni and students began to raise funds to construct a monument to him and his fifteen years as leader of the university. Although the funds were easily raised, plans were delayed for over two decades as MIT made plans to move to a new campus on the western bank of the Charles River in Cambridge. The new Beaux-Arts campus opened in 1916, and featured a neo-classical Walker Memorial building housing a gymnasium, students' club and lounge, and a commons room.[126]
Despite his prominence and leadership in the fields of economics, statistics, and political economy, Walker's Course IX on General Studies was dissolved shortly after his death, and a seventy-year debate followed over the appropriate role and scope of humanistic and social studies at MIT.[127][128] Graduation requirements changed over the years, but have always included some number of courses in the humanities. Since 1975, all undergraduate students are required to take eight classes distributed across the MIT School of Humanities, Arts, and Social Sciences before receiving their degrees.[129][130] To address continuing concerns about poor communications skills, a Communication Requirement has been added for two of the classes taken in a designated major to be "communication-intensive",[131] including "substantial instruction and practice in oral presentation".[132]
Beginning in 1947, the American Economic Association recognized the lifetime achievement of an individual economist with a "Francis A. Walker Medal". The
Walker's reputation declined in the 21st century as attention was brought to his "bigoted" racial views. A bronze bust of him was removed from its pedestal and relocated to the MIT Museum, accompanied by a description that describes them as "appalling".[133]
Principal works
- The Indian Question (1874)
- The Wages Question: A treatise on Wages and the Wages Class (1876)
- Money (1878)
- Money in its Relation to Trade and Industry (1879)
- Political Economy (first edition, 1883)
- Land and its Rent (1883)
- History of the Second Army Corps (1886)
- Life of General Hancock (1894)
- The Making of the Nation (1895)
- International Bimetallism (1896)
See also
- List of American Civil War brevet generals (Union)
- List of Massachusetts generals in the American Civil War
References
Citations
- ^ Captured! The Civil War experience of the Superintendent of the Census Francis Amasa Walker by Jason G. Gauthier, Historian, Public Information Office, U.S. Census Bureau
- ^ a b c Eicher & Eicher 2001, p. 760
- ^ Walker, Francis A. (1896). International Bimetallism. New York: Henry Holt and Company. Retrieved 11 June 2018 – via Internet Archive.
- ^ ISSN 0895-3309.
- ISSN 0002-9602.
- ^ S2CID 162371987.
- ^ a b c d Harnwell 2008
- ^ Munroe 1923, p. 23
- ^ Munroe 1923, pp. 25–26
- ^ a b c Wright 1897, p. 248
- ^ Munroe 1923, p. 27
- ^ a b Munroe 1923, p. 29
- ^ Munroe 1923, p. 415
- ^ Munroe 1923, p. 28
- ^ Munroe 1923, pp. 30–32
- ^ Munroe 1923, pp. 32–35
- ^ Munroe 1923, p. 36
- ^ Munroe 1923, p. 41
- ^ Munroe 1923, pp. 46–52
- ^ Munroe 1923, p. 55
- ^ Munroe 1923, pp. 57–59
- ^ Munroe 1923, pp. 63–64
- ^ Munroe 1923, pp. 65–66
- ^ Munroe 1923, p. 66
- ^ Munroe 1923, pp. 67–68
- ^ Munroe 1923, pp. 68–70
- ^ Munroe 1923, pp. 70–73
- ^ Munroe 1923, pp. 74–75
- ^ Munroe 1923, pp. 81–87
- ^ Munroe 1923, pp. 94–100
- ^ a b Wright 1897, p. 249
- ^ Eicher & Eicher 2001, pp. 549
- ^ Munroe 1923, pp. 101–102
- ^ Hunt & Brown 1990, p. 644
- ^ Munroe 1923, pp. 262–268
- ^ Munroe 1923, p. 269
- ^ Munroe 1923, p. 104
- ^ Munroe 1923, pp. 105–108
- ^ Munroe 1923, p. 109
- ^ Wright 1897, p. 250
- ^ Munroe 1923, pp. 110–11
- ^ "Directors 1865–1893". U.S. Census Bureau. Archived from the original on 2008-04-13. Retrieved 2009-06-20.
- ^ Munroe 1923, pp. 111–112
- ^ Munroe 1923, pp. 113–118
- ^ a b Fitzpatrick 1957, p. 309
- ^ Munroe 1923, p. 128
- ^ Munroe 1923, pp. 118–121
- ^ Munroe 1923, p. 121
- ^ Fitzpatrick 1957, p. 310
- ^ Munroe 1923, pp. 125–126
- ^ Kinnahan 2008
- ^ Walker, Francis (1874). The Indian Question. Boston: James R. Osgood and Company. pp. 148, 148–151.
- ^ Walker, Francis (1874). The Indian Question. Boston: James R. Osgood and Company. pp. 143, 143.
- ^ Walker, Francis (1874). The Indian Question. Boston: James R. Osgood and Company. pp. 62, 62–91.
- ^ Walker, Francis (1874). The Indian Question. Boston: James R. Osgood and Company. pp. 100, 100.
- ^ Walker, Francis (1874). The Indian Question. Boston: James R. Osgood and Company. pp. 146, 146.
- ^ Munroe 1923, pp. 159–160
- ^ Munroe 1923, p. 311
- ^ Munroe 1923, pp. 159–164
- ^ Munroe 1923, pp. 164–165
- ^ Munroe 1923, pp. 166–181
- ^ Munroe 1923, p. 203
- ^ Munroe 1923, pp. 200–201
- ^ Wright 1897, pp. 268–269
- ^ Fitzpatrick 1957, pp. 309–310
- ^ Munroe 1923, p. 197
- ^ Munroe 1923, pp. 198–199
- ^ Fitzpatrick 1957, p. 311
- ^ Munroe 1923, pp. 199–200
- ^ Munroe 1923, pp. 205–208
- ^ Munroe 1923, pp. 140, 148–149
- ^ a b c d Wright 1897, pp. 250–251
- ^ a b c d e Munroe 1923, pp. 415–419
- ^ "Members Directory". American Antiquarian Society.
- ^ Wright 1897, pp. 251–252
- ^ Wright 1897, p. 254
- ^ Wright 1897, p. 257
- ^ Hadley 1897, p. 295
- ^ a b Fonseca
- ^ Munroe 1923, pp. 155–158
- ^ Hadley 1897, pp. 296–300
- ^ Whitaker 1997, pp. 1895–1898
- ^ Ward & Trent 1907–1921
- ^ Wright 1897, pp. 258–259
- ^ a b Munroe 1923, p. 300
- ^ Whitaker 1997, pp. 1891–1892
- ^ Parrington 1927
- ^ Cord 2003, p. 232
- ^ Cord 2003, p. 231,233
- ^ Whitaker 1997, pp. 1906–1909
- ^ Whitaker 1997, pp. 1901–1904
- ^ Munroe 1923, pp. 177–181
- ^ Munroe 1923, pp. 358–364
- ^ Hadley 1897, pp. 307–308
- ^ Munroe 1923, pp. 355–356, 359
- ^ Solow 1987
- ^ Solow 1987, p. 184
- ^ Munroe 1923, pp. 300–307
- ^ Hodgson 1992
- ^ Walker, Francis A. (June 1896). "Restriction of Immigration". The Atlantic.
- ^ Munroe 1923, pp. 213–215
- ^ Munroe 1923, pp. 206–207
- ^ Munroe 1923, p. 208
- ^ Munroe 1923, p. 218
- ^ Munroe 1923, pp. 225–226
- ^ Munroe 1923, pp. 228–229
- ^ Munroe 1923, pp. 229–233
- ^ Munroe 1923, pp. 309–310
- ^ Munroe 1923, pp. 233–234, 239
- ^ Munroe 1923, pp. 220–222
- ^ Munroe 1923, pp. 221–222
- ^ Munroe 1923, pp. 222–224
- ^ Munroe 1923, pp. 233, 382
- ^ Munroe 1923, pp. 218–219
- ^ Munroe 1923, pp. 219–220
- ^ Munroe 1923, pp. 237–238
- ^ Munroe 1923, pp. 224–225, 240–244
- ^ Munroe 1923, pp. 283–290, 393–399
- ^ Dunbar 1897, p. 353
- ^ Munroe 1923, p. 382
- ^ Munroe 1923, p. 238
- ^ Munroe 1923, pp. 276–282, 290–291
- ^ Munroe 1923, pp. 150–152
- ^ Munroe 1923, pp. 400–401
- ^ Munroe 1923, p. 405
- ^ Munroe 1923, pp. 411–412
- ^ Adelstein 1988
- ^ "History: Department of Economics". Institute Archives & Special Collections, MIT Libraries. Retrieved May 24, 2010.
- ^ "History of the School of Humanities, Arts, and Social Sciences". Institute Archives, MIT Libraries. Retrieved 2009-06-23.
- ^ "Humanities, Arts, and Social Sciences (HASS) Requirement". 2008–2009 Course Catalogue, MIT Registrar's Office. Retrieved 2009-06-22.
- ^ "About the Requirement". Undergraduate Communication Requirement. MIT. Retrieved May 30, 2012.
- ^ "Faculty and Instructors". Undergraduate Communication Requirement. MIT. Retrieved May 30, 2012.
- ^ Gay, Malcolm (September 29, 2022). "New MIT Museum glimpses the future and examines school's past". The Boston Globe. Retrieved 8 January 2023.
Bibliography
- "Statisticians in History: Francis Amasa Walker". American Statistical Association. Retrieved 2009-06-18.
- Adelstein, Richard P. (1988). "Mind and Hand: Economics and Engineering at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology". In William J. Barber (ed.). Economists and higher learning in the nineteenth century. Middletown, Conn.: Wesleyan University Press. ISBN 0-8195-5176-7.
- Billings, John S. (1902). "Francis Amasa Walker 1840–1897" (PDF). Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences. 21. National Academy Press: 209–218.
- Chomsky, Carol (Nov 1990). "The United States-Dakota War Trials: A Study in Military Injustice". Stanford Law Review. 43 (1): 13–96. JSTOR 1228993.
- Cord, Steven B. (2003). "Walker: the General Leads the Charge". .
- Dewey, Davis R. (1897). "Francis A. Walker as a Public Man". In Albert Shaw (ed.). The Review of Reviews, January–June 1897. Vol. XV. New York: The Review of Reviews Co. pp. 166–171.
- Dunbar, Charles F. (July 1897). "The Career of Francis Amasa Walker". Quarterly Journal of Economics. 11 (4): 436–448. JSTOR 1880719.
- Eicher, John H.; Eicher, David J. (2001). Civil War High Commands. Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-3641-3.
- Fitzpatrick, Paul J. (1957). "Leading American Statisticians in the Nineteenth Century". Journal of the American Statistical Association. 52 (279): 301–321. JSTOR 2280901.
- Fonseca, Gonçalo L. "Francis Amasa Walker". History of Economic Thought. Archived from the original on 2011-01-06.
- Hadley, Arthur Twining (1897). "Francis A. Walker's Contributions to Economic Theory". Political Science Quarterly. 12 (2). The Academy of Political Science: 295–308. JSTOR 2140123.
- Harnwell, Susan L. (2008). "Francis Amasa Walker". 15th Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry in the Civil War. Archived from the original on 2011-07-19.
- Hodgson, Dennis (1992). "Ideological Currents and the Interpretation of Demographic Trends: The Case of Francis Amasa Walker". Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences. 28 (1): 28–44. PMID 11612656.
- Hunt, Jack R.; Brown (1990). Brevet Brigadier Generals in Blue. Gaithersburg, MD: Olde Soldier Books. ISBN 1-56013-002-4.
- Kinnahan, Thomas P. (2008). "Charting Progress: Francis Amasa Walker's Statistical Atlas of the United States and Narratives of Western Expansion". American Quarterly. 60 (2): 399–423. S2CID 145351855.
- Munroe, James P. (1923). A Life of Francis Amasa Walker. New York: Henry Holt & Company.
- Newton, B. (1968). The Economics of Francis Amasa Walker: American Economics in Transition. New York: A. M. Kelley.
- Parrington, Vernon Louis (1927). "Francis A. Walker". Main Currents in American Thought. Vol. 3. Harcourt, Brace, and Co. pp. 111–117. ISBN 0-7812-5283-0.
- Spencer, Joseph Jansen (1897). "General Francis A. Walker: A Character Sketch". In Albert Shaw (ed.). The Review of Reviews, January–June 1897. Vol. XV. New York: The Review of Reviews Co. pp. 159–166.
- Solow, Robert M. (1987). "What do we know that Francis Amasa Walker didn't?". History of Political Economy. 19 (2): 183–189. .
- A.W. Ward, W.P. Trent; et al., eds. (1907–1921). "Francis Amasa Walker". The Cambridge history of English and American literature. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons.
- Whitaker, John K. (1997). "Enemies or Allies? Henry George and Francis Amasa Walker One Century Later". Journal of Economic Literature. 35 (4): 1891–1915.
- Wright, Carroll D. (1897). "Francis Amasa Walker". Publications of the American Statistical Association. 5 (38). American Statistical Association: 245–275. S2CID 177116168.
External links
- Biographical note – MIT Archives
- Biographical note – New School
- Works by Francis Amasa Walker at Project Gutenberg
- Works by or about Francis Amasa Walker at Internet Archive
- The American Cyclopædia. 1879.
.
- Appletons' Cyclopædia of American Biography. 1889. .
- New International Encyclopedia. 1905.
.
- Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 28 (11th ed.). 1911. pp. 270–271. .
- Francis Amasa Walker at Find a Grave