French Americans
Franco-Américains ( French Canadians as percent of population by state and province.[a] | |
---|---|
Total population | |
Including French-Canadian: 8,053,902 (2.4%) alone or in combination Catholic, minority Protestant) | |
Related ethnic groups | |
French Canadians, French-Canadian Americans, Basque Americans, Belgian Americans (Wisconsin Walloons), Breton Americans, Catalan Americans, Corsican Americans, German Americans |
Part of a series of articles on the |
French people |
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French Americans or Franco-Americans (
The state with the largest proportion of people identifying as having French ancestry is Maine, while the state with the largest number of people with French ancestry is California. Many U.S. cities have large French American populations. The city with the largest concentration of people of French extraction is Madawaska, Maine, while the largest French-speaking population by percentage of speakers in the U.S. is found in St. Martin Parish, Louisiana.
Country-wide, as of 2020, there are about 9.4 million U.S. residents who declare French ancestry
Franco-Americans are less visible than other similarly sized ethnic groups and are relatively uncommon when compared to the size of France's population, or to the numbers of German, Italian, Irish or English Americans. This is partly due to the tendency of Franco-American groups to identify more closely with North American regional identities such as
History
Some Franco-Americans arrived prior to the founding of the United States, settling in places like the Midwest, Louisiana or Northern New England. In these same areas, many cities and geographic features retain their names given by the first Franco-American inhabitants, and in sum, 23 of the Contiguous United States were colonized in part by French pioneers or French Canadians, including settlements such as Iowa (Des Moines), Missouri (St. Louis), Kentucky (Louisville) and Michigan (Detroit), among others.[10] While found throughout the country, today Franco-Americans are most numerous in New England, northern New York, the Midwest, Louisiana, and northern California. Often, Franco-Americans are identified more specifically as being of French Canadians, Cajuns or Louisiana Creole descent.[11]
A vital segment of Franco-American history involves the
Louisiana
Louisiana Creole people refers to those who are descended from the colonial settlers in Louisiana, especially those of French and Spanish descent but also including individuals of
The Cajuns of Louisiana have a unique heritage, generally seeing themselves as distinct from Louisiana Creoles despite a number of historical documents also classifying the Acadians' descendants as Créoles. Their ancestors settled
During the War of 1812, Louisiana residents of French origin took part on the American side in the Battle of New Orleans (December 23, 1814, through January 8, 1815). Jean Lafitte and his Baratarians later were honored by US General Andrew Jackson for their contribution to the defense of New Orleans.[13]
In Louisiana today, more than 15 percent of the population of the
Another significant source of immigrants to Louisiana was
Biloxi in Mississippi, and Mobile in Alabama, still contain French American heritage since they were founded by the Canadian Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville.
The
Colonial era
In the 17th and early 18th centuries, there was an influx of a few thousand
A new influx of French-heritage people occurred at the very end of the colonial era. Following the failed invasion of Quebec in 1775-1776, hundreds of French-Canadian men who had enlisted in the Continental Army remained in the ranks. Under colonels James Livingston and Moses Hazen, they saw military action across the main theaters of the Revolutionary War. At the end of the war, New York State formed the Canadian and Nova Scotia Refugee Tract stretching westward from Lake Champlain. Though many of the veterans sold their claim in this vast region, some remained and the settlement held. From early colonizing efforts in the 1780s to the era of Quebec's "great hemorrhage," the French-Canadian presence in Clinton County in northeastern New York was inescapable.[21]
Midwest
From the beginning of the 17th century,
.The French Canadians set up a number of villages along the waterways, including
The region was relinquished by France to the British in 1763 as a result of the Treaty of Paris. Three years of war by the Natives, called Pontiac's War, ensued. It became part of the Province of Quebec in 1774, and was seized by the United States during the Revolution.[24]
New England and New York State
In the nineteenth century, many people of French heritage arrived from Quebec and New Brunswick to work in manufacturing cities, especially textile centers, in New England and New York State. They came together in enclaves known as "Little Canadas". In the same period, Francophones from Quebec became a majority of workers in other regions and sectors, for instance the saw mill and logging camps in the Adirondack Mountains and their foothills. They amounted to an ever-growing share of the region's population; by the mid-twentieth century, Franco-Americans comprised 30 percent of Maine's population.[25]
Factories could provide employment to entire nuclear families, including children. Some French-Canadian women saw New England as a place of opportunity and possibility where they could create economic alternatives for themselves distinct from the expectations of their farm families in Canada. By the early twentieth century, some saw temporary migration to the United States as a rite of passage and a time of self-discovery and self-reliance. Most moved permanently to the United States, using the inexpensive railroad system to visit Quebec from time to time. When these women did marry, they had fewer children with longer intervals between children than their Canadian counterparts. Some women never married and oral accounts suggest that self-reliance and economic independence were important reasons for choosing work over marriage and motherhood. These women conformed to traditional gender ideals in order to retain their 'Canadienne' cultural identity, but they also redefined these roles in ways that provided them increased independence as wives and mothers.[26][27] Women also shaped the Franco-American experience as members of religious orders. The first hospital in Lewiston, Maine, became a reality in 1889 when the Sisters of Charity of Montreal, the 'Grey Nuns,' opened the Asylum of Our Lady of Lourdes. This hospital was central to the Grey Nuns' mission of providing social services for Lewiston's predominately French-Canadian mill workers. The Grey Nuns struggled to establish their institution despite meager financial resources, language barriers, and opposition from the established medical community.[28][29]
The French-Canadian community in the Northeast tried to preserve its inherited cultural norms. This happened within the institutions of the Catholic Church, though it involved struggling with little success against Irish clerics. According to Raymond Potvin, the predominantly Irish hierarchy was slow to recognize the need for French-language parishes; several bishops even called for assimilation and English language-only parochial schools. By the twentieth century, a number of parochial schools for Francophone students opened, though they gradually closed later in the century and a large share of the French-speaking population left the Church. At the same time, the number of priests available to staff these parishes diminished.
Amid the decline of the textile industry from the 1920s to the 1950s, the French element experienced a period of upward mobility and assimilation. This pattern of assimilation increased during the 1970s and 1980s as many Catholic organizations switched to English and parish children entered public schools; some parochial schools closed in the 1970s.[25][34] In recent decades, self-identification has moved away from the French language.
Franco-American culture continues to evolve in the twenty-first century. Well-established genealogical societies and public history venues still seek to share the Franco-American story. Their work is occasionally supported by the commercial and cultural interests of Quebec and state governments in the Northeast.[35] New groups and events have contributed to the effort. Some observers have drawn a comparison between recent developments and the appropriation and modernization of “Franco” culture by young people in the 1970s. For some, a “renaissance” or “revival” is under way.[36][37]
The New Hampshire PoutineFest, founded by Timothy Beaulieu, uses an iconic Quebec dish to broaden interest in the culture.[38] The French-Canadian Legacy podcast offers contemporary perspectives on French-Canadian experiences on both sides of the border. Through a collaboration with the Quebec Government Office and local institutions, the podcast’s team established a GeoTour dedicated to Franco-American life in major New England cities.[39] Acts of commemoration have lately extended to pioneer suffragist Camille-Lessard Bissonnette.[40] Abby Paige has, for her part, brought the community’s history and its complicated legacies to the stage.[41] The culture and its manifestations in Louisiana, the Midwest, and the Northeast have become the focus of a course at Harvard University.[42] Francophonie Month (March) and St. John the Baptist Day (June 24) also provide an opportunity for celebration and increased visibility.[43] At the same time, some members of the community are inviting reconsideration of Franco-Americans’ place in conversations about race[44][45] and class.[46]
Noted American popular culture figures who maintained a close connection to their French roots include musician Rudy Vallée (1901–1986) who grew up in Westbrook, Maine, a child of a French-Canadian father and an Irish mother,[47] and counter-culture author Jack Kerouac (1922–1969) who grew up in Lowell, Massachusetts. Kerouac was the child of two French-Canadian immigrants and wrote in both English and French. Franco-American political figures from New England include U.S. Senator Kelly Ayotte (R, New Hampshire), Governor Paul LePage of Maine, and Presidential adviser Jon Favreau, who was born and raised in Massachusetts.
California
During the early years of the
French immigrants and their descendants also began settling in what is now the North Bay, becoming instrumental in the development of Wine Country and the modern California wine industry.[52] Following the 1906 San Francisco earthquake, French architecture (especially Beaux-Arts) was heavily used in the rebuilding of the city, as evidenced in its City Hall, Legion of Honor Museum, and downtown news kiosks.[49]
As a result of historic connections and cultural exchanges between France and the region, the majority of French multinational businesses have established their U.S. headquarters or subsidiaries in the San Francisco Bay Area since the rise of Silicon Valley and the Dot-com bubble.[53]
Civil War
Franco-Americans in the
Politics
Walker (1962) examines the voting behavior in U.S. presidential elections from 1880 to 1960, using election returns from 30 Franco-American communities in New England, along with sample survey data for the 1948–60 elections. According to Walker, from 1896 to 1924, Franco-Americans typically supported the
Additional work has expanded Walker's findings. Ronald Petrin has explored the rise of the Republican ascendency among Massachusetts Franco-Americans in the 1890s; the lengthy economic depression that coincided with President Grover Cleveland's administration and Franco-Irish religious controversies were likely factors in growing support for the GOP. Petrin recognizes different political behaviors in large cities and in smaller centers.[56] Madeleine Giguère has confirmed the later shift to the Democratic column through her research on Lewiston's presidential vote during the twentieth century.[57] In the most in-depth study of Franco-American political choices, Patrick Lacroix finds different patterns of partisan engagement across New England and New York State. In southern New England, Republicans actively courted the "Franco" vote and offered nominations. The party nominated Aram J. Pothier, a native of Quebec, who won his bid for the governorship of Rhode Island and served seven terms in that office. In northern New England, Franco-Americans faced exclusion from the halls of power and more easily turned towards the Democrats. During the 1920s, the regional disparity disappeared. Due to the nativist and anti-labor policies of Republican state governments, an increasingly unionized Franco-American working class lent its support to the Democrats across the region. Elite "Francos" continued to prefer the GOP.[58]
As the ancestors of most Franco-Americans had for the most part left France before the French Revolution, they usually prefer the fleur-de-lis to the modern French tricolor.[59]
Franco-American Day
In 2008, the state of Connecticut made June 24 Franco-American Day, recognizing French Canadians for their culture and influence on Connecticut. The states of Maine, New Hampshire, and Vermont, have now also held Franco-American Day festivals on June 24.[60]
Demographics
Colonial French American population in 1790
The
Estimated French American population in the Continental United States as of the 1790 Census [61]
State or Territory | French | |
---|---|---|
# | % | |
Connecticut | 2,100 | 0.90% |
Delaware | 750 | 1.62% |
Georgia | 1,200 | 2.27% |
Kentucky & Tenn. | 2,000 | 2.15% |
Maine | 1,200 | 1.25% |
Maryland | 2,500 | 1.20% |
Massachusetts | 3,000 | 0.80% |
New Hampshire | 1,000 | 0.71% |
New Jersey | 4,000 | 2.35% |
New York | 12,000 | 3.82% |
North Carolina | 4,800 | 1.66% |
Pennsylvania | 7,500 | 1.77% |
Rhode Island | 500 | 0.77% |
South Carolina | 5,500 | 3.92% |
Vermont | 350 | 0.41% |
Virginia | 6,500 | 1.47% |
1790 Census Area | 54,900 | 1.73% |
Northwest Territory | 6,000 | 57.14% |
French America | 12,850 | 64.25% |
Spanish America | − | - |
United States | 73,750 | 2.29% |
2000 Census
According to the
|
|
|
|
Historical immigration
Between 1820 and 1920, 530,000 French people came to the United States |
|
Religion
Most Franco Americans have a
From the 1870s to the 1920s in particular, there was tension between the English-speaking
Education
Currently there are multiple French international schools in the United States operated in conjunction with the Agency for French Education Abroad (AEFE).[78]
French language in the United States
According to the National Education Bureau, French is the second most commonly taught foreign language in American schools, behind Spanish. The percentage of people who learn French language in the United States is 12.3%.[62] French was the most commonly taught foreign language until the 1980s; when the influx of Hispanic immigrants aided the growth of Spanish. According to the U.S. 2000 Census, French is the third most spoken language in the United States after English and Spanish, with 2,097,206 speakers, up from 1,930,404 in 1990. The language is also commonly spoken by Haitian immigrants in Florida and New York City.[79]
As a result of French immigration to what is now the United States in the 17th and 18th centuries, the French language was once widely spoken in a few dozen scattered villages in the Midwest. Migrants from Quebec after 1860 brought the language to New England. French-language newspapers existed in many American cities; especially New Orleans and in certain cities in New England. Americans of French descent often lived in predominantly French neighborhoods; where they attended schools and churches that used their language. Before 1920 French Canadian neighborhoods were sometimes known as "Little Canada".[80]
After 1960, the "Little Canadas" faded away.[81] There were few French-language institutions other than Catholic churches. There were some French newspapers, but they had a total of only 50,000 subscribers in 1935.[82] The World War II generation avoided bilingual education for their children, and insisted they speak English.[83] By 1976, nine in ten Franco Americans usually spoke English and scholars generally agreed that "the younger generation of Franco-American youth had rejected their heritage."[84]
Flag
The Franco-American flag is an
Blue and white are colors found on the flags of both the United States and francophone nations such as France or Quebec. The star symbolizes the United States and the fleur-de-lis symbolizes French culture. It can also be seen as representative of French Canadians who form a sizable population in the American Northeast.
Settlements
Cities founded
- Biloxi, Mississippi was founded in 1699 by Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville.
- Boise, Idaho, founded in the 1820s by French fur traders, means "wooded".
- Bourbonnais, Illinois was named after French Canadian fur trader Francois Bourbonnais. The first permanent resident was French Canadian fur trader Noel LeVasseur in the 1830s.
- Chicago, Illinois is derived from a French rendering of the Native American word shikaakwa, translated as "wild onion" or "wild garlic", from the Miami-Illinois language.[87][88][89][90] The first known reference to the site of the current city of Chicago as "Checagou" was by Robert de LaSalle around 1679 in a memoir written about the time.[91] Henri Joutel, in his journal of 1688, noted that the wild garlic, called "chicagoua," grew abundantly in the area.[88]
- Coeur d'Aleneout of respect for their tough trading practices. Cœur d'alêne literally means "heart of an awl".
- Antoine LeClaire, a US army interpreter, in 1836.
- Detroit, Michigan was founded by Antoine de la Mothe Cadillac in 1701, a French army captain, and was originally called Fort Pontchartrain du Détroit, after the minister of marine under Louis XIV and the French word Détroit for "strait".
- Dubuque, Iowa was established as a lead mining site by Canadian Julien Dubuque in 1788.
- Duluth, Minnesota, so-named for an Anglicization of Daniel Greysolon, Sieur du Lhut, modern city established by English, first founded as early French fur-trading post.
- Dupont, Colorado, Du Pont, Georgia, Dupont, Indiana, Dupont, Ohio, Dupont, Pennsylvania, Dupont, Tennessee and DuPont, Washington, were all founded by the Du Pont family or other French settlers.
- San Joaquin County.
- Galveston, Texas, first European settlement was established in 1816 by French pirate, Louis-Michel Aury, succeeded by Jean Lafitte, until the island's raiders were evicted by the US Navy in 1821.
- Grand Forks, North Dakota, originally "Les Grandes Fourches", when it was settled in the 1740s by fur traders.
- inhabitantsand their families.
- Joseph Juneau, a gold prospector from the region of Montreal, who settled the first mining camp in the area.
- Kaskaskia, Illinois was founded in 1703 by French Jesuit missionaries and was Illinois's first capital.
- Milwaukee, Wisconsin was founded settled by French traders most notably Jacques Vieau and established as a city by Solomon Juneau.
- Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne. It was the first capital of Louisiana.
- Natchitoches, Louisiana was founded in 1714 by Louis Juchereau de St. Denis.
- Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne and named after Philippe II, Duke of Orléans.
- Louis DuBois.
- Huguenots and named after La Rochelle, France.
- Peoria, Illinois was first settled with the establishment of Fort Crevecoeur in 1680, ceded to British after 1763; area of downtown was once site of "La Ville de Maillet"
- Pierre, South Dakota was named after Pierre Chouteau Jr., a fur trader of French Canadian origin, who built Fort Pierre, where the capital of Pierre stands today.
- Robert de La Salle and was a post of French and Dutch fur traders, prior to the construction of Fort Duquesneand modern founding by the English.
- Portage Des Sioux was founded in 1799 by Zenon Trudeau and François Saucier.
- Nicholas Perrotas a fur trading post.
- Prairie du Rocher, Illinois was founded in 1722 by Sister Thérèse Langlois, four years after Fort de Chartres was built by Pierre Dugué de Boisbriand.
- Saint Charles, Missouri was founded by Louis Blanchette, a French Canadian, in 1769.
- René Auguste Chouteauin 1764.
- Sainte Genevieve, Missouri was founded in 1735 by habitants.
- Saint Ignace, Michigan was founded by father Jacques Marquette in 1671.
- St. Joseph, Missouri was founded by Joseph Robidoux c. 1826.
- Saint Paul, Minnesota was established in 1838 by Pierre Parrant and settled by French Canadians. In 1841, it was named Saint-Paul by Father Lucien Galtier in honor of Paul the Apostle.
- Sault Sainte Marie, Michigan was founded in 1668 by fathers Jacques Marquette and Claude Dablon.
- Vincennes, Indiana was established in 1732 by François-Marie Bissot, Sieur de Vincennes and rallied to the cause of the American revolution with Father Pierre Gibault.
States founded
- Arkansas – named by French explorers from the corrupted Indian word meaning "south wind". Arkansas Post was its first French establishment in 1686 by Henri de Tonti.
- La Louisiane until 1763, when it passed to the British with their defeat of France in the Seven Years' War.
- Picote de Beletre, built Fort Ouiatenon on the Wabash River. In 1732, Sieur de Vincennes built a second fur trading post at Vincennes. French Canadian settlers, who had left the earlier post because of hostilities, returned in larger numbers.
- .
- Jesuit missions were established by the French: one on Penobscot Bay in 1609, and the other on Mount Desert Island in 1613. The same year, Castine was established by Claude de La Tour. In 1625, Charles de Saint-Étienne de la Tour erected Fort Pentagouetto protect Castine.
- Michigan – French transcription of Ojibwe word Mishii'igan (syncopated as Mishiigan) which means "great lake". The French forts of Fort Saint-Joseph and Fort Michilimackinac, as well as the French establishments of Detroit and Saint Ignace were located in the area of Michigan which was part of New France.
- Minnesota – The first Europeans in the area were French fur traders who arrived in the 17th century. Explorers such as Daniel Greysolon, Sieur du Lhut, Father Louis Hennepin, and Joseph Nicollet, among others, mapped out the state.
- French Canadians, who created their first settlement in Missouri at present-day Ste. Genevieve, about an hour south of St. Louis. They had migrated about 1750 from the IllinoisCountry. St. Louis was founded soon after by French from New Orleans in 1764.
- Vermont – comes from a contraction of French words, Vert, green, and mont, mount, mountain. It was named by the French explorer Samuel de Champlain. French seigneuries were subdivided along Lake Champlain at the time of New France, which was later given to the British colonies by the Treaty of Paris in 1763.
- Wisconsin – named after the Meskousing River. This spelling was later corrupted from the local Native American language to "Ouisconsin" by French explorers, and over time this version became the French name both for the Wisconsin River and for the surrounding lands. La Baye was Wisconsin's main community at the time of New France. English speakers anglicized the spelling to its modern form when they began to arrive in greater numbers during the early 19th century.[93]
Historiography
Richard (2002) examines the major trends in the historiography regarding the Franco-Americans who came to New England in 1860–1930. He identifies three categories of scholars: survivalists, who emphasized the common destiny of Franco-Americans and celebrated their survival; regionalists and social historians, who aimed to uncover the diversity of the Franco-American past in distinctive communities across New England; and pragmatists, who argued that the forces of acculturation were too strong for the Franco-American community to overcome. The 'pragmatists versus survivalists' debate over the fate of the Franco-American community may be the ultimate weakness of Franco-American historiography. Such teleological stances have impeded the progress of research by funneling scholarly energies in limited directions while many other avenues, for example, Franco-American politics, arts, and ties to Quebec, remain insufficiently explored.[94]
While a considerable number of pioneers of Franco-American history left the field or came to the end of their careers in the late 1990s, other scholars have moved the lines of debate in new directions in the last fifteen years. The "Franco" communities of New England have received less sustained scholarly attention in this period, but important work has no less appeared as historians have sought to assert the relevance of the French-Canadian diaspora to the larger narratives of American immigration, labor and religious history.
Scholars have worked to expand the transnational perspective developed by Robert G. LeBlanc during the 1980s and 1990s.[95] Yukari Takai has studied the impact of recurrent cross-border migration on family formation and gender roles among Franco-Americans.[96] Florence Mae Waldron has expanded on older work by Tamara Hareven and Randolph Langenbach in her study of Franco-American women's work within prevalent American gender norms.[97] Waldron's innovative work on the national aspirations and agency of women religious in New England also merits mention.[98] Historians have pushed the lines of inquiry on Franco-Americans of New England in other directions as well. Recent studies have introduced a comparative perspective, considered the surprisingly understudied 1920s and 1930s, and reconsidered old debates on assimilation and religious conflict in light of new sources.[99][100][101]
At the same time, there has been rapidly expanding research on the French presence in the middle and western part of the continent (the American Midwest, the Pacific coast, and the Great Lakes region) in the century following the collapse of New France.[102][103][104][105]
Notable people
See also
- American French
- Acadians
- Canadian Americans
- Cajuns
- Franco American literature
- French Canadians
- French Polynesian Americans
- French language in the United States
- The Huguenot Society of America
- French language in Minnesota
- Louisiana Creole people
- History of the Franco-Americans
- Americans in France
Notes
- ^ This map does not display data of people identifying solely as Acadian/Cajun, Creole, French-Canadian, Haitian, Métis or Québécois alone, due to the difficulty of determining overlap for multiple-ancestry or ethnicity responses. Many identified with "French" Census responses in the United States and Canada will have some overlap with "French – French-Canadian" and "French – Cajun", "Haitian – French" and other responses.
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- ^ Canada, French Canadians and Franco-Americans in the Civil War Era (1861–1865) D.-C. Bélanger, Montreal, Quebec, June 24, 2001
- JSTOR 139667
- ^ Petrin, Ronald A. (1990). French Canadians in Massachusetts Politics, 1885-1915: Ethnicity and Political Pragmatism. Philadelphia: Balch Institute Press.
- ^ Madeleine Giguère (2007). Madore, Nelson; Rodrigue, Barry (eds.). Voyages : A Maine Franco-American Reader. Gardiner: Tilbury House. p. 474-483.
- ^ Lacroix, Patrick (2021). "Tout nous serait possible": Une histoire politique des Franco-Américains, 1874-1945. Quebec City: Presses de l'Université Laval.
- ^ Edmonton Sun, April 21, 2009
- OCLC 1086749050.
- ^ a b "French in the US". netcapricorn.com. Retrieved January 14, 2017.
- doi:10.3406/remi.1990.1225. Archived from the original(PDF) on January 12, 2016. Retrieved December 4, 2012.
- ^ Source of the data: US Census Bureau, « Population Group: French (except Basque) » Archived February 12, 2020, at archive.today, recensement de 2010 (9,529,969 habitants)
- ^ US Census Bureau, « Population Group: French Canadian » Archived February 12, 2020, at archive.today, recensement de 2010 (2,265,648 habitants)
- ^ a b Source of the data: Histoire des Acadiens, Bona Arsenault, Éditions Leméac, Ottawa, 1978
- ^ Rouse, Parke (July 7, 1996). "Huguenots sought freedom". Daily Press. Newport News, Va. Archived from the original on September 21, 2019.
- ^ Spiegel, Taru (September 30, 2019). "Teaching French at Harvard and L'Abeille Françoise". 4 Corners of the World; International Collections. Library of Congress. Archived from the original on October 6, 2019.
- ^ Auto racer Louis Chevrolet was a Swiss Catholic. He made automobiles bearing his name before selling out in 1915; General Motors purchased the brand in 1917.
- ^ Rumilly, Robert (1958). Histoire des Franco-Américains. Montreal: Union Saint-Jean-Baptiste d'Amérique.
- S2CID 159662405.
- S2CID 164667346.
- .
- ^ Woonsocket Rhode Island, A Centennial History, 1888-2000 The Millennium Edition pg. 87
- ^ Richard S. Sorrell, "Sentinelle Affair (1924–1929): Religion and Militant Survivance in Woonsocket, Rhode Island," Rhode Island History, Aug 1977, Vol. 36 Issue 3, pp 67–79
- OCLC 786169259.
- ^ Hillary Kaell, "'Marie-Rose, Stigmatisée de Woonsocket': The Construction of a Franco-American Saint Cult, 1930–1955", Historical Studies, 2007, Vol. 73, pp 7–26
- ^ "Rechercher un établissement". Agency for French Education Abroad. Retrieved on October 24, 2015.
- ISBN 9780306483219.
- ISBN 9780944190074.
- ^ Claire Quintal, ed., Steeples and Smokestacks. A Collection of essays on The Franco-American Experience in New England (1996) pp 618-9
- ^ Quintal p 614
- ^ Quintal p 618
- ^ Richard, "American Perspectives on La fièvre aux États-Unis, 1860–1930," p 105, quote on p 109
- ISBN 0-7735-0537-7.
- ^ "The Robert Couturier Collection - Audio-Visual Materials". Franco-American Collection | University of Southern Maine. Archived from the original on June 2, 2019.
- ^ For a historical account of interest, see the section entitled "Origin of the word Chicago" in Andreas, Alfred Theodore, History of Chicago, A. T. Andreas, Chicago (1884) pp 37–38.
- ^ OCLC 25174749.
- ^ McCafferty, Michael (December 21, 2001). ""Chicago" Etymology". The LINGUIST List. Retrieved October 22, 2009.
- ISSN 1522-1067. Archived from the originalon May 5, 2011. Retrieved October 22, 2009.
- ^ Quaife, Milton M. Checagou, (Chicago: University of Chicago Press., 1933).
- ^ Allison, p. 17.
- ^ "Origin of State Names". infoplease.com. Retrieved January 14, 2017.
- S2CID 161389855.
- .
- ^ Takai, Yukari (2008). Gendered Passages: French-Canadian Migration to Lowell, Massachusetts, 1900–1920. New York City: Peter Lang.
- S2CID 254493034.
- S2CID 143533518.
- .
- .
- S2CID 159662405.
- ^ Gitlin, Jay (2009). The Bourgeois Frontier: French Towns, French Traders, and American Expansion. New Haven: Yale University Press.
- ^ Englebert, Robert; Teasdale, Guillaume, eds. (2013). French and Indians in the Heart of America, 1630–1815. East Lansing: Michigan State University Press.
- ^ Barman, Jean (2014). French Canadians, Furs, and Indigenous Women in the Making of the Pacific Northwest. Vancouver: UBC Press.
- ^ Teasdale, Guillaume; Villerbu, Tangi, eds. (2015). Une Amérique française, 1760–1860: Dynamiques du corridor créole. Paris: Les Indes savantes.
Further reading
- Albert, Renaud S; Martin, Andre; Giguere, Madeleine; Allain, Mathe; Brasseaux, Carl A (May 1979). A Franco-American Overview (PDF). Vol. I–V. Cambridge, Mass.: National Assessment and Dissemination Center, Lesley College; US Department of Education – via Education Resources Information Center (ERIC).
- Baird, Charles Washington (1885). History of the Huguenot Emigration to America, Dodd, Mead & Company, (online: Volume I)
- Blumenthal, Henry. (1975) American and French Culture, 1800–1900: Interchanges in Art." Science, Literature, and Society
- Bond, Bradley G. (2005). French Colonial Louisiana and the Atlantic World, LSU Press, 322 pages ISBN 0-8071-3035-4 (online excerpt)
- Butler, Jon. (1992) The Huguenots in America: A Refugee People in New World Society (Harvard UP)
- Brasseaux, Carl A. (1987). The Founding of New Acadia. The Beginnings of Acadian Life in Louisiana, 1765–1803, LSU Press, 229 pages ISBN 0-8071-2099-5
- Childs, Frances Sergeant. (1940)French Refugee Life in the United States 1790–1800: An American Chapter of the French Revolution online
- Cote, Rhea Robbins. (1997) Wednesday's Child, Rheta Press, 96 pages ISBN 978-0-9668536-4-3
- Cote, Rhea Robbins. (2013) 'down the Plains' , Rheta Press, 226 pages ISBN 978-0-615-84110-6
- Ekberg, Carl J. (2000). French Roots in the Illinois Country. The Mississippi Frontier in Colonial Times, University of Illinois Press, 376 pages ISBN 0-252-06924-2 (online excerpt)
- ISBN 0674375122, (1980) pp 379–88.
- Jones, Howard Mumford. (1927) America and French Culture, 1750–1848 online free to borrow
- Lagarde, François. (2003). The French in Texas. History, Migration, Culture (U of Texas Press, 330 pages ISBN 0-292-70528-X (online excerpt)
- Laflamme, J.L.K., David E. Lavigne and J. Arthur Favreau. (1908) Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "French Catholics in the United States". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
- Lamarre, Jean. Les Canadiens français du Michigan: leur contribution dans le développement de la vallée de la Saginaw et de la péninsule de Keweenaw, 1840-1914 (Les éditions du Septentrion, 2000). online
- Louder, Dean R., and Eric Waddell, eds. (1993). French America. Mobility, Identity, and Minority Experience Across the Continent, Louisiana State University Press, 371 pages ISBN 0-8071-1669-6
- Lindenfeld, Jacqueline. (2002). The French in the United States. An Ethnographic Study, Greenwood Publishing Group, 184 pages ISBN 0-89789-903-2 (online excerpt)
- Monnier, Alain. "Franco-Americains et Francophones aux Etats-Unis" ("Franco-Americans and French Speakers in the United States). Population 1987 42(3): 527–542. Census study.
- Pritchard, James S. (2004). In Search of Empire. The French in the Americas, 1670–1730, Cambridge University Press, 484 pages ISBN 0-521-82742-6 (online excerpt)
- Rumily, Robert. (1958) Histoire des Franco Americains. a standard history
- Valdman, Albert. (1997). French and Creole in Louisiana, Springer, 372 pages ISBN 0-306-45464-5 (online excerpt)
- Weil, François. "Les Franco-Americains et la France' ("Franco-Americans and France") Revue Francaise d'Histoire d'Outre-Mer 1990 77(3): 21–34
External links
- Extensive studies, Documents, Statistics and Resources of Franco American History
- Franco American Women's Institute
- Institut français
- Dave Martucci, Franco-American flags, in Flags of the World
- Vivre en Orange County – French Community in Orange County, California
- Bonjour L.A. !- Bonjour L.A. ! Los Angeles with a French touch
- Council for the Development of French in Louisiana – a state agency.
- Oral History of French Canadians in Franklin County, New York and of a small sawmill and logging community in the Northern New York State populated by French Canadians