Franco-Ottoman alliance
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The Franco-Ottoman alliance, also known as the Franco-Turkish alliance, was an alliance established in 1536 between
As the first non-ideological alliance in effect between a Christian and Muslim state, the alliance attracted heavy controversy for its time and caused a scandal throughout Christendom.
Background
Following the Turkish conquest of
Some early contacts seem to have taken place between the Ottomans and the French.
France had signed a first treaty or in which the Sultan of Egypt had made concessions to the French and the Catalans, and which would be later extended by Suleiman.
France had already been looking for allies in Central Europe. The ambassador of France
A momentous intensification of the search for allies in
Alliance of Francis I and Suleiman
The alliance was an opportunity for both rulers to fight against the hegemony of the
King Francis was imprisoned in
I who am the Sultan of Sultans, the sovereign of sovereigns, the dispenser of crowns to the monarchs on the face of the earth, the shadow of the God on Earth, the Sultan and sovereign lord of the Mediterranean Sea and of the Black Sea, of Rumelia and of Anatolia, of Karamania, of the land of Romans, of Dhulkadria, of Diyarbakir, of Kurdistan, of Azerbaijan, of Persia, of Damascus, of Aleppo, of Cairo, of Mecca, of Medina, of Jerusalem, of all Arabia, of Yemen and of many other lands which my noble fore-fathers and my glorious ancestors (may God light up their tombs!) conquered by the force of their arms and which my August Majesty has made subject to my flamboyant sword and my victorious blade, I, Sultan Suleiman Khan, son of Sultan Selim Khan, son of Sultan Bayezid Khan: To thee who art Francesco, king of the province of France ... You have sent to my Porte, refuge of sovereigns, a letter by the hand of your faithful servant Frangipani, and you have furthermore entrusted to him miscellaneous verbal communications. You have informed me that the enemy has overrun your country and that you are at present in prison and a captive, and you have asked aid and succors for your deliverance. All this your saying having been set forth at the foot of my throne, which controls the world. Your situation has gained my imperial understanding in every detail, and I have considered all of it. There is nothing astonishing in emperors being defeated and made captive. Take courage then, and be not dismayed. Our glorious predecessors and our illustrious ancestors (may God light up their tombs!) have never ceased to make war to repel the foe and conquer his lands. We ourselves have followed in their footsteps, and have at all times conquered provinces and citadels of great strength and difficult of approach. Night and day our horse is saddled and our saber is girt. May the God on High promote righteousness! May whatsoever He will be accomplished! For the rest, question your ambassador and be informed. Know that it will be as said.
— Answer from Suleiman the Magnificent to Francis I of France, February 1526.[15]
The plea of the French king nicely corresponded to the ambitions of Suleiman in Europe, and gave him an incentive to attack
Meanwhile, Charles V was manoeuvring to form a
With the
Francis I lost in his European campaigns, and had to sign the
Exchange of embassies
In early July 1532, Suleiman was joined by the French ambassador
Astonishing order, no violence. Merchants, women even, coming and going in perfect safety, as in a European town. Life as safe, as large and easy as in Venice. Justice so fairly administered that one is tempted to believe that the Turks are turned Christians now, and that the Christians are turned Turks.
— Antonio Rincon, 1532.[20]
Francis I explained to the Venetian ambassador Giorgio Gritti in March 1531 his strategy regarding the Turks:[21]
I cannot deny that I wish to see the Turk all-powerful and ready for war, not for himself – for he is an infidel and we are all Christians – but to weaken the power of the emperor, to compel him to make major expenses, and to reassure all the other governments who are opposed to such a formidable enemy.
— Francis I to the Venetian ambassador.[22]
Ottoman embassies were sent to France, with the Ottoman embassy to France (1533) led by Hayreddin Barbarossa, and the Ottoman embassy to France (1534) led by representatives of Suleiman.
Combined operations (1534–35)
Suleiman ordered Barbarossa to put his fleet at the disposition of Francis I to attack
In 1534 a Turkish fleet sailed against the Habsburg Empire at the request of Francis I, raiding the Italian coast and finally meeting with representatives of Francis in southern France.[25] The fleet went on to capture Tunis in the Conquest of Tunis (1534) on 16 August 1534 and continued raiding the Italian coast with the support of Francis I.[26] In a counter-attack however, Charles V dislodged them in the Conquest of Tunis (1535).
Permanent embassy of Jean de La Forêt (1535–1537)
Trade and religious agreements
Treaties, or capitulations, were passed between the two countries starting in 1528 and 1536. The defeat in the Conquest of Tunis (1535) at the hands of Andrea Doria motivated the Ottoman Empire to enter into a formal alliance with France.[27] Ambassador Jean de La Forêt was sent to Istanbul, and for the first time was able to become permanent ambassador at the Ottoman court and to negotiate treaties.[27]
Jean de La Forêt negotiated the
A French embassy and a Christian chapel were established in the town of
Military and financial agreements
Jean de la Forêt also had secret military instructions to organize a combined offensive on Italy in 1535:
Jean de la Forest, whom the King sends to meet with the
galeassesand other vessels, accompanied by one of the largest and most beautiful carracks that ever was on the sea. This fleet will accompany and escort the army of sir Haradin, which will also be refreshed and supplied with food and ammunition by the King, who, by these actions, will be able to achieve his aims, for which he will be highly grateful to sir Haradin. ...
To theJean de la Forest, 1535.[34]
Finally, Suleiman intervened diplomatically in favour of Francis on the European scene. He is known to have sent at least one letter to the Protestant princes of Germany to encourage them to ally with Francis I against Charles V.[35] Francis I effectively allied with the Schmalkaldic League against Charles V in 1535.
Italian War of 1536–1538
Franco-Ottoman military collaboration took place during the Italian War of 1536–1538 following the 1536 Treaty negotiated by Jean de La Forêt.
Campaign of 1536
Francis I invaded Savoy in 1536,[36] starting the war. A Franco-Turkish fleet was stationed in Marseille by the end of 1536, threatening Genoa.[37] While Francis I was attacking Milan and Genoa in April 1536, Barbarossa was raiding the Habsburg possessions in the Mediterranean.[27]
In 1536 the French Admiral
Joint campaign of 1537
For 1537 important combined operations were agreed upon, in which the Ottomans would attack southern Italy and
The Ottomans departed from Southern Italy, and instead mounted the
For two years, until 1538, Saint-Blancard would accompany the fleet of Barbarossa, and between 1537 and 1538, Saint-Blancard would winter with his galleys in Constantinople and meet with Suleiman. During that time, Saint-Blancard was funded by Barbarossa.[41] The campaign of Saint-Blancard with the Ottomans was written down in Le Voyage du Baron de Saint Blancard en Turquie, by Jean de la Vega, who had accompanied Saint-Blancard in his mission.[42] Although the French accompanied most of the campaigns of Barbarossa, they sometimes refrained from participating in Turkish assaults, and their accounts express horror at the violence of these encounters, in which Christians were slaughtered or taken as captives.[43]
Habsburg-Valois Truce of Nice (1538)
With
The Franco-Ottoman alliance was crippled for a while however, due to Francis' official change of alliance at Nice in 1538. Open conflict between Charles and Francis would resume in 1542, as well as Franco-Ottoman collaboration, with the 4 July 1541 assassination by Imperial troops of the
Italian War of 1542–1546 and Hungary Campaign of 1543
During the Italian War of 1542–46 Francis I and Suleiman I were again pitted against the
Failed coordination in the campaign of 1542
In early 1542, Polin successfully negotiated the details of the alliance, with the Ottoman Empire promising to send 60,000 troops against the territories of the German king Ferdinand, as well as 150 galleys against Charles, while France promised to attack Flanders, harass the coasts of Spain with a naval force, and send 40 galleys to assist the Turks for operations in the Levant.[46]
A landing harbour in the north of the
Polin left Constantinople on 15 February 1542 with a contract from Suleiman outlining the details of the Ottoman commitment for 1542. He arrived in Blois on 8 March 1542 to obtain a ratification of the agreement by Francis I.[48] Accordingly, Francis I designated the city of Perpignan as the objective for the Ottoman expedition, in order to obtain a seaway to Genoa.[49] Polin, after some delays in Venice, finally managed to take a galley to Constantinople on 9 May 1542, but he arrived too late for the Ottomans to launch a sea campaign.[50]
Meanwhile, Francis I initiated the hostilities with Charles V on 20 July 1542, and kept with his part of the agreement by laying siege at Perpignan and attacking Flanders.
When Francis I learnt from André de Montalembert that the Ottomans were not coming, he raised the siege of Perpignan.[52]
Joint siege of Nice (1543)
Most notably, the French forces, led by
Barbarossa wintering in Toulon (1543–1544)
After the siege of Nice, the Ottomans were offered by Francis to winter at Toulon, so that they could continue to harass the Holy Roman Empire, and especially the coast of Spain and Italy, as well the communications between the two countries:
Lodge the Lord Barbarossa sent to the king by the Great Turk, with his Turkish Army and grands seigneurs to the number of 30,000 combatants during the winter in his town and port of Toulon... for the accommodation of the said army as well as the well-being of all his coast, it will not be suitable for the inhabitants of Toulon to remain and mingle with the Turkish nation, because of difficulties which might arise
— Instruction of Francis I to his Lord Lieutenant of Provence.[56]
During the wintering of Barbarossa, the Toulon Cathedral was transformed into a mosque, the call to prayer occurred five times a day, and Ottoman coinage was the currency of choice. According to an observer: "To see Toulon, one might imagine oneself at Constantinople".[57]
Throughout the winter, the Ottomans were able to use Toulon as a base to attack the Spanish and Italian coasts, raiding
Captain Polin in Constantinople (1544)
Five French galleys under
Joint campaign in Hungary (1543–1544)
On land Suleiman was concomitantly fighting for the conquest of
Besides the powerful effect of a
French support in the Ottoman-Safavid war (1547)
In 1547, when
Consequences
The alliance provided strategic support to, and effectively protected, the kingdom of France from the ambitions of Charles V. It also gave the opportunity for the Ottoman Empire to become involved in European diplomacy and gain prestige in its European dominions. According to historian Arthur Hassall the consequences of the Franco-Ottoman alliance were far-reaching: "The Ottoman alliance had powerfully contributed to save France from the grasp of Charles V, it had certainly aided Protestantism in Germany, and from a French point of view, it had rescued the North German allies of Francis I."'[67]
Political debate
Side effects included a lot of negative propaganda against the actions of France and its "unholy" alliance with a
Numerous authors intervened to take the defense of the French king for his alliance. Authors wrote about the Ottoman civilization, such as
Cultural and scientific exchanges
Cultural and scientific exchanges between France and the Ottoman Empire flourished. French scholars such as
Scientific exchange is thought to have occurred, as numerous works in Arabic, especially pertaining to
Books, such as the Muslim holy text, the
International trade
Strategically, the alliance with the Ottoman Empire also allowed France to offset to some extent the Habsburg Empire's advantage in the New World trade, and French trade with the eastern Mediterranean through Marseille indeed increased considerably after 1535. After the Capitulations of 1569, France also gained precedence over all other Christian states, and her authorization was required for when another state wished to trade with the Ottoman Empire.[78]
Military alliance under Henry II
The son of Francis I,
Cooperation during the Italian War of 1551–1559
Various military actions were coordinated during the Italian War of 1551–1559. In 1551, the Ottomans, accompanied by the French ambassador Gabriel de Luez d'Aramon, succeeded in the siege of Tripoli.[79]
Joint attacks on the Kingdom of Naples (1552)
In 1552, when Henry II attacked Charles V, the Ottomans sent 100 galleys to the Western Mediterranean.
Joint invasion of Corsica (1553)
On 1 February 1553, a new treaty of alliance, involving naval collaboration against the Habsburg was signed between France and the Ottoman Empire.
In 1555, the French ambassador
On 30 December 1557, Henry II wrote a letter to Suleiman, asking him for money,
Support of Protestantism under Charles IX
Ottoman power was also used by the French in the religious conflicts on the European scene. In 1566, under
The great emperor of the Turks does with as great devotion as any prince in the world honour and observe the religion by him received from his ancestors, and yet detests he not the strange religions of others; but on the contrary permits every man to live according to his conscience: yes, and that more is, near unto his palace at Pera, suffers four diverse religions viz. that of the Jews, that of the Christians, that of the Grecians, and that of the Mahometans.
The Ottoman Empire was at the height of its power, but for the forty years after these events, France would become embroiled in the bitter
In 1572, after the death of the Polish king
In 1574,
French
Ottoman support for France would continue, as well as support for the
Ottoman-Persian diplomatic rivalry in Europe
The conflict between the Ottomans and the Persians led the latter to try to forge a counter-acting
Continuation
For the three centuries following the beginning of the alliance,[6] the Ottoman effectively continued to respect their commitment to protect Christian communities in their realm. The French kings succeeding to Francis I also generally maintained their pro-Ottoman policy.[4] Numerous Ottoman embassies were received at the French court: from Suleiman I to Francis I in 1533, from Suleiman I to Charles IX in 1565 (embassy of Hajji Murad),[65] from Selim II to Charles IX in 1571, from Murad III to Henry III in 1581.[99]
Henry IV
Even before
Henry IV continued the policy of Franco-Ottoman alliance and received an embassy from
An embassy was again sent to
French influence remained paramount at Constantinople, and the Capitulations were renewed in 1604, forcing all nations to trade under the protection and flag of France, except for England and Venice which were competing, with the Dutch Republic, for influence in the Levant. In the context of competition for influence between Western powers, relations between France and the Ottoman Empire started to cool significantly.[106] In 1643, the French lost the custody of the Holy Places to the Greeks.[106]
Revival of the alliance under Louis XIV
Initially, the sentiment of Louis towards the Ottoman Empire seems to have been quite negative, and French troops assisted the Austrians against the Turks at the 1664
The
In 1673, Louis sent a fleet to the
The Ottoman
In 1688, Louis again attacked the Habsburg Empire, in effect relieving pressure from the Ottomans. Louis was reviled for this action, and was called:
The most Christian Turk, the most Christian ravager of Christendom, the most Christian barbarian who had perpetrated on Christians outrages of which his infidel allies would have been ashamed.
— House of Commons Journal, April 15, 16 1689.[116]
The Ottomans were able to stage a counter-attack and succeeded in the
Cultural exchanges
By the end of the 17th century, the first major defeats of the Ottoman Empire reduced the perceived threat in European minds, which led to an artistic craze for Turkish things. There was a fashion for Turkish things with
French literature also was greatly influenced. In 1704 was published the first French version of One Thousand and One Nights.[118] French authors used the East as a way to enrich their philosophical work and a pretext to write comments on the West: Montesquieu wrote the Lettres Persannes in 1721, a satirical essay on the West, Voltaire used the Oriental appeal to write Zaïre (1732) and Candide (1759).[118] French travelers of the 17th century, such as Jean de Thévenot or Jean-Baptiste Tavernier routinely visited the Ottoman Empire.
There were also numerous culinary influences.
A carpet industry façon de Turquie ("in the manner of Turkey") was developed in France in the reign of
Continued support from Louis XV to the Revolution
Ottoman embassies
In the early 18th century, the Ottoman Sultan
Diplomatic and technical collaboration
Throughout the period, contacts were varied and multiple. France was willing to help in order to maintain strategic balance in Europe. Through its intervention and that of Ambassador Louis de Villenneuve in negotiating the 1739 Treaty of Belgrade, France effectively supported the Ottoman Empire into maintaining a strong presence in Europe against Austria for several more decades,[106] and "re-emerged in its traditional role as the Ottomans' best friend in Christendom".[125]
Also, as the Ottoman Empire was losing ground militarily during the 18th century, it made numerous efforts to recruit French experts for its modernization. The French officer and adventurer
Louis XVI
Under Louis XVI from 1783, a French Military Mission was sent to the Ottoman Empire to train the Turks in naval warfare and fortification building.[127] Up to the French Revolution in 1789, about 300 French artillery officers and engineers were active in the Ottoman Empire to modernize and train artillery units.[128] From 1784, Antoine-Charles Aubert reached Constantinople with 12 experts.[129] The same year, French engineering officers André-Joseph Lafitte-Clavé and Joseph-Monnier de Courtois arrived to instruct engineering drawings and techniques in the new Turkish engineering school Mühendishâne-i Hümâyûn established by the Grand Vizier Halil Hamid Pasha.[130] Mostly French textbooks were used on mathematics, astronomy, engineering, weapons, war techniques and navigation.[130] However, all instructors had to leave with the end of the Franco-Ottoman alliance in 1798.[130]
Revolutionary France
This policy initially continued during the
In 1796, General
Epilogue: Napoleon I
With the advent of Napoleon I, France adopted a strongly expansionist policy which put it in direct contact with the Ottoman Empire. Following the
Peoples of Egypt, you will be told that I have come to destroy your religion: do not believe it! Answer that I have come to restore your rights and punish the usurpers, and that, more than the Mamluks, I respect God, his Prophet and the Quran... Is it not we who have been through the centuries the friends of the Sultan?
— Napoleon to the Egyptians.[137]
Napoleon had toppled the Mamluk beys, the effective rulers of Egypt under nominal Ottoman suzerainty, but still raised the French flag side by side with the Ottoman banner throughout the Egyptian territory, claiming his love for Islam, and saying that they were saving the Ottomans from the Mamluks. Selim III however immediately declared a Jihad and sought the help of Britain and Russia, who both felt both threatened by Napoleon's conquests. On January 3, 1799, the Ottoman Empire allied with Russia, and two days later with Great Britain.[138]
Britain took the opportunity to ally with the Ottoman Empire in order to repel Napoleon's invasion, intervening militarily during the
A final, but short-lived, alliance
Soon however, in 1803, France and Great Britain were again at war, and Napoleon went to great lengths to try to convince the Ottoman Empire to fight against Russia in the Balkans and join his anti-Russian coalition. On its side, Russia vied for Ottoman favour, and succeeded in signing a Treaty of Defensive Alliance in 1805.[139]
Napoleon continued his efforts to win the Ottoman Empire to his cause. He sent General
Are you blind to your own interests – have you ceased to reign? (...) If Russia has an army of 15,000 men at Corfu, do you think that it is directed against me? Armed vessels have the habit of hastening to Constantinople. Your dynasty is about to descend into oblivion... Trust only your true friend, France
In February 1806, following Napoleon's remarkable victory in the
In a final reversal however, Napoleon I finally vanquished Russia at the
Crimean War and Syria
In the Crimean War, a French-British-Ottoman alliance against Russia was signed on 12 March 1854.[147]
In another example of cooperation, in 1860, France later intervened in the Ottoman territory of
See also
- French–Habsburg rivalry
- Habsburg–Persian alliance
- International relations, 1648–1814
- Turco-Calvinism
Notes
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- ISBN 9780203011683– via books.google.com.
- ISBN 9780199257997– via books.google.com.
- ISBN 9780714610245– via books.google.com.
References
- Frazee, Charles A. (2006) [1983]. Catholics and Sultans: The Church and the Ottoman Empire 1453–1923. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521027007.
- Robert A. Kann A History of the Habsburg Empire, 1526–1918 ISBN 0-520-04206-9
- William Miller The Ottoman Empire and Its Successors, 1801–1927 ISBN 0-7146-1974-4(1st ed. 1913, 2nd ed. 1922)
- Roger Bigelow Merriman Suleiman the Magnificent 1520–1566 READ BOOKS, 2007 ISBN 1-4067-7272-0
- ISBN 0-87169-161-2.
- Fatma Müge Göçek East Encounters West: France and the Ottoman Empire in the Eighteenth Century ISBN 0-19-504826-1
- Jack Goody Islam in Europe Wiley-Blackwell, 2004 ISBN 0-7456-3193-2
- McCabe, Ina Baghdiantz 2008 Orientalism in early Modern France Berg ISBN 978-1-84520-374-0
- Peter Malcolm Holt, Ann K. S. Lambton, Bernard Lewis The Cambridge History of Islam ISBN 0-521-29135-6
- Inari Karsh Empires of the Sand: The Struggle for Mastery in the Middle East, 1789–1923 ISBN 0-674-00541-4
- Harold Lamb Suleiman the Magnificent – Sultan of the East READ BOOKS, 2008 ISBN 1-4437-3144-7
- Daniel Goffman The Ottoman Empire and early modern Europe Cambridge University Press, 2002 ISBN 0-521-45908-7
- Roger Crowley, Empire of the sea, 2008 Faber & Faber ISBN 978-0-571-23231-4
- Garnier, Edith L'Alliance Impie Editions du Felin, 2008, Paris
- Piccirillo, Anthony Carmen (2009). ""A Vile, Infamous, Diabolical Treaty" The Franco-Ottoman Alliance of Francis I and the Eclipse of the Christendom Ideal" (PDF). Georgetown University. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-10-03. – Senior Honors Thesis in History
- Yann Bouvier, « Récits de voyage et représentation de l'espace. La Méditerranée de Jérôme Maurand, un espace vécu », Mémoire de Master, Dir. par Pierre-Yves Beaurepaire, Université de Nice, 2007, 292 p.
- Yann Bouvier, « Antoine Escalin des Aimars (1498?–1578) – De la Garde-Adhémar au siège de Nice, le parcours d'un Ambassadeur de François Ier », Recherches Régionales, Nice, Conseil Général des Alpes-Maritimes, n°188, Octobre-décembre 2007, 28 pp.
- Mathieu Grenet, « Muslim missions to early modern France, c.1610-c.1780 : notes for a social history of cross-cultural diplomacy », Journal of Early Modern History, Vol. 19, No. 2-3 (2015): 223–244.
Further reading
- Raccagni, Michelle (May 1980). "The French Economic Interests in the Ottoman Empire". S2CID 162224837.
- Jensen, De Lamar (Winter 1985). "The Ottoman Turks in Sixteenth Century French Diplomacy". JSTOR 2541220.