Franklin D. Roosevelt
Franklin D. Roosevelt | |
|---|---|
 Official campaign portrait, 1944 | |
| 32nd President of the United States | |
| In office March 4, 1933 – April 12, 1945 | |
| Vice President |
|
| Preceded by | Herbert Hoover |
| Succeeded by | Harry S. Truman |
| 44th Governor of New York | |
| In office January 1, 1929 – January 1, 1933 | |
| Lieutenant | Herbert H. Lehman |
| Preceded by | Al Smith |
| Succeeded by | Herbert H. Lehman |
| Assistant Secretary of the Navy | |
| In office March 17, 1913 – August 26, 1920 | |
| President | Woodrow Wilson |
| Preceded by | Beekman Winthrop |
| Succeeded by | Gordon Woodbury |
| Member of the New York State Senate from the 26th district | |
| In office January 1, 1911 – March 17, 1913 | |
| Preceded by | John F. Schlosser |
| Succeeded by | James E. Towner |
| Personal details | |
| Born | Franklin Delano Roosevelt January 30, 1882 Hyde Park, New York, U.S. |
| Died | April 12, 1945 (aged 63) Warm Springs, Georgia, U.S. |
| Resting place | Springwood Estate |
| Political party | Democratic |
| Spouse | |
| Children | 6, including Franklin Jr., Anna, Elliott, James II, and John II |
| Parents |
|
| Relatives | |
| Education |  |
Franklin Delano Roosevelt (/ˈdɛlənoʊ ˈroʊzəvɛlt, -vəlt/ DEL-ə-noh ROH-zə-velt, -vəlt;[1] January 30, 1882 – April 12, 1945), commonly known as FDR, was an American statesman and political leader who served as the 32nd president of the United States from 1933 until his death in 1945. He previously served as the 44th governor of New York from 1929 to 1933, the Assistant Secretary of the Navy from 1913 to 1920, and a member of the New York State Senate from 1911 to 1913.
Roosevelt attended
During his first 100 days as president, Roosevelt spearheaded unprecedented federal legislation and issued a profusion of executive orders that instituted the New Deal. He created numerous programs to provide relief to the unemployed and farmers while seeking economic recovery with the National Recovery Administration and other programs. He also instituted major regulatory reforms related to finance, communications, and labor, and presided over the end of Prohibition. In 1936, Roosevelt won a landslide reelection with the economy having improved rapidly from 1933, but the economy relapsed into a deep recession in 1937 and 1938. Later, Roosevelt unsuccessfully sought passage of the Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937. The conservative coalition formed in 1937 to block the implementation of further New Deal programs and reforms. He ran successfully for reelection in 1940, becoming the only American president to serve for more than two terms.
With
Early life and marriage
Childhood
Franklin Delano Roosevelt was born on January 30, 1882, in the
Their father graduated from Harvard Law School in 1851 but chose not to practice law after receiving an inheritance from his grandfather, James Roosevelt. [6] Roosevelt's father, a prominent Bourbon Democrat, once took Franklin to meet President Grover Cleveland, who said to him: "My little man, I am making a strange wish for you. It is that you may never be President of the United States."[7] Franklin's mother, the dominant influence in his early years, once declared, "My son Franklin is a Delano, not a Roosevelt at all."[3][8] James, who was 54 when Franklin was born, was considered by some as a remote father, though biographer James MacGregor Burns indicates James interacted with his son more than was typical at the time.[9]
Education and early career
As a child, Roosevelt learned to ride, shoot, and sail; he also learned to play polo, tennis, and golf.[10][11] Frequent trips to Europe—beginning at age two and from age seven to fifteen—helped Roosevelt become conversant in German and French. Except for attending public school in Germany at age nine,[12] Roosevelt was home-schooled by tutors until age 14. He then attended Groton School, an Episcopal boarding school in Groton, Massachusetts.[13] He was not among the more popular Groton students, who were better athletes and had rebellious streaks.[14] Its headmaster, Endicott Peabody, preached the duty of Christians to help the less fortunate and urged his students to enter public service. Peabody remained a strong influence throughout Roosevelt's life, officiating at his wedding and visiting him as president.[15][16]
Like most of his Groton classmates, Roosevelt went to Harvard College.[14] He was a member of the Alpha Delta Phi fraternity[17] and the Fly Club,[18] and served as a school cheerleader.[19] Roosevelt was relatively undistinguished as a student or athlete, but he became editor-in-chief of The Harvard Crimson daily newspaper, a position that required ambition, energy, and the ability to manage others.[20] He later said, "I took economics courses in college for four years, and everything I was taught was wrong."[21]
Roosevelt's father died in 1900, causing great distress for him.[22] The following year, Roosevelt's fifth cousin Theodore Roosevelt became President of the United States. Theodore's vigorous leadership style and reforming zeal made him Franklin's role model and hero.[23] He graduated from Harvard in three years in 1903 with an A.B. in history.[24] He remained there for a fourth year, taking graduate courses and becoming editor of the Harvard Crimson.[25]
He entered Columbia Law School in 1904 but dropped out in 1907 after passing the New York Bar Examination.[26][b] In 1908, he took a job with the prestigious law firm of Carter Ledyard & Milburn, working in the firm's admiralty law division.[28]
Marriage, family, and affairs
During his second year of college, he met and proposed to Boston heiress Alice Sohier, who turned him down.
Roosevelt had several extra-marital affairs, including with Eleanor's social secretary Lucy Mercer, soon after she was hired in 1914, and discovered by Eleanor in 1918.[37] Franklin contemplated divorcing Eleanor, but Sara objected, and Lucy would not marry a divorced man with five children.[38] Franklin and Eleanor remained married, and Roosevelt promised never to see Lucy again. Eleanor never forgave him, and their marriage became more of a political partnership.[39] Eleanor soon established a separate home in Hyde Park at Val-Kill, and devoted herself to social and political causes independent of her husband. The emotional break in their marriage was so severe that when Roosevelt asked Eleanor in 1942—in light of his failing health—to come back home and live with him again, she refused.[40] He was not always aware of when she visited the White House and for some time she could not easily reach him on the telephone without his secretary's help; Roosevelt, in turn, did not visit Eleanor's New York City apartment until late 1944.[41]
Franklin broke his promise to Eleanor as he and Lucy maintained a formal correspondence, and began seeing each other again in 1941 or earlier.[42][43] Roosevelt's son Elliott claimed that his father had a 20-year affair with his private secretary, Marguerite "Missy" LeHand.[44] Another son, James, stated that "there is a real possibility that a romantic relationship existed" between his father and Crown Princess Märtha of Norway, who resided in the White House during part of World War II. Aides began to refer to her at the time as "the president's girlfriend",[45] and gossip linking the two romantically appeared in the newspapers.[46]
Early political career (1910–1920)
New York state senator (1910–1913)
Roosevelt cared little for the practice of law and told friends he planned to enter politics.
Despite short legislative sessions, Roosevelt treated his new position as a full-time career.
Roosevelt opposed Tammany Hall by supporting New Jersey Governor
Roosevelt's support of Wilson led to his appointment in March 1913 as Assistant Secretary of the Navy, the second-ranking official in the Navy Department after Secretary Josephus Daniels who paid it little attention.[62] Roosevelt had an affection for the Navy, was well-read on the subject, and was a most ardent supporter of a large, efficient force.[63][64] With Wilson's support, Daniels and Roosevelt instituted a merit-based promotion system and made other reforms to extend civilian control over the autonomous departments of the Navy.[65] Roosevelt oversaw the Navy's civilian employees and earned the respect of union leaders for his fairness in resolving disputes.[66] No strikes occurred during his seven-plus years in the office,[67] as he gained valuable experience in labor issues, wartime management, naval issues, and logistics.[68]
In 1914, Roosevelt ran for the seat of retiring Republican Senator Elihu Root of New York. Though he had the backing of Treasury Secretary William Gibbs McAdoo and Governor Martin H. Glynn, he faced a formidable opponent in Tammany-Hall's James W. Gerard.[69] He also was without Wilson's support, as the president needed Tammany's forces for his legislation and 1916 re-election.[70] Roosevelt was soundly defeated in the Democratic primary by Gerard, who in turn lost the general election to Republican James Wolcott Wadsworth Jr. He learned that federal patronage alone, without White House support, could not defeat a strong local organization.[71] After the election, he and Tammany Hall boss, Charles Francis Murphy, sought accommodation and became allies.[72]
Roosevelt refocused on the Navy Department, as World War I broke out in Europe in August 1914.[73] Though he remained publicly supportive of Wilson, Roosevelt sympathized with the Preparedness Movement, whose leaders strongly favored the Allied Powers and called for a military build-up.[74] The Wilson administration initiated an expansion of the Navy after the sinking of the RMS Lusitania by a German submarine, and Roosevelt helped establish the United States Navy Reserve and the Council of National Defense.[75] In April 1917, after Germany declared it would engage in unrestricted submarine warfare and attacked several U.S. ships, Congress approved Wilson's call for a declaration of war on Germany.[76]
Roosevelt requested that he be allowed to serve as a naval officer, but Wilson insisted that he continue to serve as Assistant Secretary. For the next year, Roosevelt remained in Washington to coordinate the deployment of naval vessels and personnel, as the Navy expanded fourfold.
Campaign for vice president (1920)
Roosevelt's plan for Hoover to run for the nomination fell through after Hoover publicly declared himself to be a Republican, but Roosevelt decided to seek the 1920 vice presidential nomination. After Governor James M. Cox of Ohio won the party's presidential nomination at the 1920 Democratic National Convention, he chose Roosevelt as his running mate, and the convention nominated him by acclamation.[84] Although his nomination surprised most people, he balanced the ticket as a moderate, a Wilsonian, and a prohibitionist with a famous name.[85][86] Roosevelt, then 38, resigned as Assistant Secretary after the Democratic convention and campaigned across the nation for the party ticket.[87]
During the campaign, Cox and Roosevelt defended the Wilson administration and the League of Nations, both of which were unpopular in 1920.[88] Roosevelt personally supported U.S. membership in the League of Nations, but, unlike Wilson, he favored compromising with Senator Henry Cabot Lodge and other "Reservationists".[89] The Cox–Roosevelt ticket was defeated by Republicans Warren G. Harding and Calvin Coolidge in the presidential election by a wide margin, and the Republican ticket carried every state outside of the South.[90] Roosevelt accepted the loss without issue and later reflected that the relationships and goodwill that he built in the 1920 campaign proved to be a major asset in his 1932 campaign. The 1920 election also saw the first public participation of Eleanor Roosevelt who, with the support of Louis Howe, established herself as a valuable political player.[91]
Paralytic illness and political comeback (1921–1928)
After the election, Roosevelt returned to New York City, where he practiced law and served as a vice president of the
Though his mother favored his retirement from public life, Roosevelt, his wife, and Roosevelt's close friend and adviser, Louis Howe, were all determined that he continue his political career.[98] He convinced many people that he was improving, which he believed to be essential prior to run for public office again.[99] He laboriously taught himself to walk short distances while wearing iron braces on his hips and legs by swiveling his torso, supporting himself with a cane.[100] He was careful never to be seen using his wheelchair in public, and great care was taken to prevent any portrayal in the press that would highlight his disability.[101] However, his disability was well known before and during his presidency and became a major part of his image. He usually appeared in public standing upright, supported on one side by an aide or one of his sons.[102]
Beginning in 1925, Roosevelt spent most of his time in the Southern United States, at first on his houseboat, the Larooco.
Roosevelt maintained contacts with the Democratic Party during the 1920s, and he remained active in New York politics while also establishing contacts in the South, particularly in Georgia.[105] He issued an open letter endorsing Al Smith's successful campaign in New York's 1922 gubernatorial election, which both aided Smith and showed Roosevelt's continuing relevance as a political figure.[106] Roosevelt and Smith came from different backgrounds and never fully trusted one another, but Roosevelt supported Smith's progressive policies, while Smith was happy to have the backing of the prominent and well-respected Roosevelt.[107]
Roosevelt gave presidential nominating speeches for Smith at the 1924 and 1928 Democratic National Conventions; the speech at the 1924 convention marked a return to public life following his illness and convalescence.[108] That year, the Democrats were badly divided between an urban wing, led by Smith, and a conservative, rural wing, led by William Gibbs McAdoo. On the 101st ballot, the nomination went to John W. Davis, a compromise candidate who suffered a landslide defeat in the 1924 presidential election. Like many others throughout the United States, Roosevelt did not abstain from alcohol during the Prohibition era, but publicly he sought to find a compromise on Prohibition acceptable to both wings of the party.[109]
In 1925, Smith appointed Roosevelt to the Taconic State Park Commission, and his fellow commissioners chose him as chairman.[110] In this role, he came into conflict with Robert Moses, a Smith protégé,[110] who was the primary force behind the Long Island State Park Commission and the New York State Council of Parks.[110] Roosevelt accused Moses of using the name recognition of prominent individuals including Roosevelt to win political support for state parks, but then diverting funds to the ones Moses favored on Long Island, while Moses worked to block the appointment of Howe to a salaried position as the Taconic commission's secretary.[110] Roosevelt served on the commission until the end of 1928,[111] and his contentious relationship with Moses continued as their careers progressed.[112]
Peace was the catchword of the 1920s, and in 1923 Edward Bok established the $100,000 American Peace Award for the best plan to bring peace to the world. Roosevelt had leisure time and interest, and he drafted a plan for the contest. He never submitted it because his wife Eleanor Roosevelt was selected as a judge for the prize. His plan called for a new world organization that would replace the League of Nations.[113] Although Roosevelt had been the vice-presidential candidate on the Democratic ticket of 1920 that supported the League of Nations, by 1924 he was ready to scrap it. His draft of a "Society of Nations" accepted the reservations proposed by Henry Cabot Lodge in the 1919 Senate debate. The new Society would not become involved in the Western Hemisphere, where the Monroe doctrine held sway. It would not have any control over military forces. Although Roosevelt's plan was never made public, he thought about the problem a great deal and incorporated some of his 1924 ideas into the design for the United Nations in 1944–1945.[114]
Governor of New York (1929–1932)
Smith, the Democratic presidential nominee in the 1928 election, asked Roosevelt to run for governor of New York in the 1928 state election.[115] Roosevelt initially resisted, as he was reluctant to leave Warm Springs and feared a Republican landslide in 1928.[116] Party leaders eventually convinced him only he could defeat the Republican gubernatorial nominee, New York Attorney General Albert Ottinger.[117] He won the party's gubernatorial nomination by acclamation and again turned to Howe to lead his campaign. Roosevelt was also joined on the campaign trail by associates Samuel Rosenman, Frances Perkins, and James Farley.[118] While Smith lost the presidency in a landslide, and was defeated in his home state, Roosevelt was elected governor by a one-percent margin,[119] and became a contender in the next presidential election.[120]
Roosevelt proposed the construction of hydroelectric power plants and addressed the ongoing farm crisis of the 1920s.[121] Relations between Roosevelt and Smith suffered after he chose not to retain key Smith appointees like Moses.[122] He and his wife Eleanor established an understanding for the rest of his career; she would dutifully serve as the governor's wife but would also be free to pursue her own agenda and interests.[123] He also began holding "fireside chats", in which he directly addressed his constituents via radio, often pressuring the New York State Legislature to advance his agenda.[124]
In October 1929, the
When Roosevelt began his run for a second term in May 1930, he reiterated his doctrine from the campaign two years before: "that progressive government by its very terms must be a living and growing thing, that the battle for it is never-ending and that if we let up for one single moment or one single year, not merely do we stand still but we fall back in the march of civilization."[127] He ran on a platform that called for aid to farmers, full employment, unemployment insurance, and old-age pensions.[128] He was elected to a second term by a 14% margin.[129]
Roosevelt proposed an economic relief package and the establishment of the Temporary Emergency Relief Administration to distribute those funds. Led first by
Roosevelt supported reforestation with the Hewitt Amendment in 1931, which gave birth to New York's State Forest system.[132]
1932 presidential election
As the 1932 presidential election approached, Roosevelt turned his attention to national politics, established a campaign team led by Howe and Farley, and a "brain trust" of policy advisers, primarily composed of Columbia University and Harvard University professors.[133] There were some who were not so sanguine about his chances, such as Walter Lippmann, the dean of political commentators, who observed of Roosevelt: "He is a pleasant man who, without any important qualifications for the office, would very much like to be president."[134]
However, Roosevelt's efforts as governor to address the effects of the depression in his own state established him as the front-runner for the 1932 Democratic presidential nomination.[134] Roosevelt rallied the progressive supporters of the Wilson administration while also appealing to many conservatives, establishing himself as the leading candidate in the South and West. The chief opposition to Roosevelt's candidacy came from Northeastern conservatives, Speaker of the House John Nance Garner of Texas and Al Smith, the 1928 Democratic presidential nominee.[134]
Roosevelt entered the convention with a delegate lead due to his success in the
In his acceptance speech, Roosevelt declared, "I pledge you, I pledge myself to a
After the convention, Roosevelt won endorsements from several progressive Republicans, including George W. Norris, Hiram Johnson, and Robert La Follette Jr.[139] He also reconciled with the party's conservative wing, and even Al Smith was persuaded to support the Democratic ticket.[140] Hoover's handling of the Bonus Army further damaged the incumbent's popularity, as newspapers across the country criticized the use of force to disperse assembled veterans.[141]
Roosevelt won 57% of the popular vote and carried all but six states. Historians and political scientists consider the 1932–36 elections to be a political realignment. Roosevelt's victory was enabled by the creation of the New Deal coalition, small farmers, the Southern whites, Catholics, big city political machines, labor unions, northern African Americans (southern ones were still disfranchised), Jews, intellectuals, and political liberals.[142] The creation of the New Deal coalition transformed American politics and started what political scientists call the "New Deal Party System" or the Fifth Party System.[143] Between the Civil War and 1929, Democrats had rarely controlled both houses of Congress and had won just four of seventeen presidential elections; from 1932 to 1979, Democrats won eight of twelve presidential elections and generally controlled both houses of Congress.[144]
Transition and assassination attempt
Roosevelt was elected in November 1932 but like his predecessors did not take office until the following March.[d] After the election, President Hoover sought to convince Roosevelt to renounce much of his campaign platform and to endorse the Hoover administration's policies.[145] Roosevelt refused Hoover's request to develop a joint program to stop the economic decline, claiming that it would tie his hands and that Hoover had the power to act.[146]
During the transition, Roosevelt chose Howe as his chief of staff, and Farley as Postmaster General. Frances Perkins, as Secretary of Labor, became the first woman appointed to a cabinet position.[134] William H. Woodin, a Republican industrialist close to Roosevelt, was the choice for Secretary of the Treasury, while Roosevelt chose Senator Cordell Hull of Tennessee as Secretary of State. Harold L. Ickes and Henry A. Wallace, two progressive Republicans, were selected for the roles of Secretary of the Interior and Secretary of Agriculture, respectively.[147]
In February 1933, Roosevelt escaped an assassination attempt by Giuseppe Zangara, who expressed a "hate for all rulers." As he was attempting to shoot Roosevelt, Zangara was struck by a woman with her purse; he instead mortally wounded Chicago Mayor Anton Cermak, who was sitting alongside Roosevelt.[148][149]
Presidency (1933–1945)
As president, Roosevelt appointed powerful men to top positions but made all the major decisions, regardless of delays, inefficiency, or resentment. Analyzing the president's administrative style, Burns concludes:
The president stayed in charge of his administration...by drawing fully on his formal and informal powers as Chief Executive; by raising goals, creating momentum, inspiring a personal loyalty, getting the best out of people...by deliberately fostering among his aides a sense of competition and a clash of wills that led to disarray, heartbreak, and anger but also set off pulses of executive energy and sparks of creativity...by handing out one job to several men and several jobs to one man, thus strengthening his own position as a court of appeals, as a depository of information, and as a tool of co-ordination; by ignoring or bypassing collective decision-making agencies, such as the Cabinet...and always by persuading, flattering, juggling, improvising, reshuffling, harmonizing, conciliating, manipulating.[150]
First and second terms (1933–1941)
When Roosevelt was
Historians categorized Roosevelt's program as "relief, recovery, and reform." Relief was urgently needed by tens of millions of unemployed. Recovery meant boosting the economy back to normal, and reform was required of the financial and banking systems. Through Roosevelt's series of fireside chats, he presented his proposals directly to the American public.[152] Energized by his own victory over paralytic illness, he used persistent optimism and activism to renew the national spirit.[153]
First New Deal (1933–1934)
On his second day in office, Roosevelt declared a four-day national "bank holiday", to end the run by depositors seeking to withdraw funds.
Roosevelt saw the establishment of a number of agencies and measures designed to provide relief for the unemployed and others. The
Reform of the economy was the goal of the
Recovery was sought through federal spending, as the NIRA included $3.3 billion (equivalent to $69.08 billion in 2021) of spending through the Public Works Administration.[164] Roosevelt worked with Senator Norris to create the largest government-owned industrial enterprise in American history—the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA)—which built dams and power stations, controlled floods, and modernized agriculture and home conditions in the poverty-stricken Tennessee Valley. However, natives criticized the TVA for displacing thousands of people for these projects.[154] The Soil Conservation Service trained farmers in the proper methods of cultivation, and with the TVA, Roosevelt became the father of soil conservation.[154] Executive Order 6102 declared that all privately held gold of American citizens was to be sold to the U.S. Treasury and the price raised from $20 to $35 per ounce. The goal was to counter the deflation which was paralyzing the economy.[165]
Roosevelt tried to keep his campaign promise by cutting the federal budget. This included a reduction in military spending from $752 million in 1932 to $531 million in 1934 and a 40% cut in spending on veterans benefits. 500,000 veterans and widows were removed from the pension rolls, and benefits were reduced for the remainder. Federal salaries were cut and spending on research and education was reduced. The veterans were well organized and strongly protested, so most benefits were restored or increased by 1934.[166] Veterans groups such as the American Legion and the Veterans of Foreign Wars won their campaign to transform their benefits from payments due in 1945 to immediate cash when Congress overrode the President's veto and passed the Bonus Act in January 1936.[167] It pumped sums equal to 2% of the GDP into the consumer economy and had a major stimulus effect.[168]
Second New Deal (1935–1936)
Roosevelt expected that his party would lose seats in the
Roosevelt consolidated the various relief organizations, though some, like the PWA, continued to exist. After winning Congressional authorization for further funding of relief efforts, he established the Works Progress Administration (WPA). Under the leadership of Harry Hopkins, the WPA employed over three million people in its first year of operations. It undertook numerous massive construction projects in cooperation with local governments. It also set up the National Youth Administration and arts organizations.[173]
The
While the First New Deal of 1933 had broad support from most sectors, the Second New Deal challenged the business community. Conservative Democrats, led by Al Smith, fought back with the American Liberty League, savagely attacking Roosevelt and equating him with socialism.[177] But Smith overplayed his hand, and his boisterous rhetoric let Roosevelt isolate his opponents and identify them with the wealthy vested interests that opposed the New Deal, strengthening Roosevelt for the 1936 landslide.[177] By contrast, labor unions, energized by labor legislation, signed up millions of new members and became a major backer of Roosevelt's re-elections in 1936, 1940, and 1944.[178]
Burns suggests that Roosevelt's policy decisions were guided more by pragmatism than ideology and that he "was like the general of a guerrilla army whose columns, fighting blindly in the mountains through dense ravines and thickets, suddenly converge, half by plan and half by coincidence, and debouch into the plain below."[179] Roosevelt argued that such apparently haphazard methodology was necessary. "The country needs and, unless I mistake its temper, the country demands bold, persistent experimentation," he wrote. "It is common sense to take a method and try it; if it fails, admit it frankly and try another. But above all, try something."[180]
Election of 1936
Eight million workers remained unemployed in 1936, and though economic conditions had improved since 1932, they remained sluggish. By 1936, Roosevelt had lost the backing he once held in the business community because of his support for the NLRB and the Social Security Act.[134] The Republicans had few alternative candidates and nominated Kansas Governor Alf Landon, a little-known bland candidate whose chances were damaged by the public re-emergence of the still-unpopular Herbert Hoover.[181] While Roosevelt campaigned on his New Deal programs and continued to attack Hoover, Landon sought to win voters who approved of the goals of the New Deal but disagreed with its implementation.[182]
An attempt by Louisiana Senator Huey Long to organize a left-wing third party collapsed after Long's assassination in 1935. The remnants, helped by Father Charles Coughlin, supported William Lemke of the newly formed Union Party. [183] Roosevelt won re-nomination with little opposition at the 1936 Democratic National Convention, while his allies overcame Southern resistance to permanently abolish the long-established rule that had required Democratic presidential candidates to win the votes of two-thirds of the delegates rather than a simple majority.[e]
In the election against Landon and a third-party candidate, Roosevelt won 60.8% of the vote and carried every state except Maine and Vermont.[185] The Democratic ticket won the highest proportion of the popular vote.[f] Democrats also expanded their majorities in Congress, winning control of over three-quarters of the seats in each house. The election also saw the consolidation of the New Deal coalition; while the Democrats lost some of their traditional allies in big business, they were replaced by groups such as organized labor and African Americans, the latter of whom voted Democratic for the first time since the Civil War.[186] Roosevelt lost high-income voters, especially businessmen and professionals, but made major gains among the poor and minorities. He won 86 percent of the Jewish vote, 81 percent of Catholics, 80 percent of union members, 76 percent of Southerners, 76 percent of blacks in northern cities, and 75 percent of people on relief. Roosevelt carried 102 of the country's 106 cities with a population of 100,000 or more.[187]
Supreme Court fight and second term legislation
| Supreme Court appointments by President Franklin D. Roosevelt Harlan Fiske Stone | 1941–1946 | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| Associate Justice | Hugo Black | 1937–1971 | |
| Stanley Forman Reed | 1938–1957 | ||
| Felix Frankfurter | 1939–1962 | ||
| William O. Douglas | 1939–1975 | ||
| Frank Murphy | 1940–1949 | ||
| James F. Byrnes | 1941–1942 | ||
| Robert H. Jackson | 1941–1954 | ||
| Wiley Rutledge | 1943–1949 | ||
The Supreme Court became Roosevelt's primary domestic focus during his second term after the court overturned many of his programs, including NIRA. The more conservative members of the court upheld the principles of the Lochner era, which saw numerous economic regulations struck down on the basis of freedom of contract.[189] Roosevelt proposed the Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937, which would have allowed him to appoint an additional Justice for each incumbent Justice over the age of 70; in 1937, there were six Supreme Court Justices over the age of 70. The size of the Court had been set at nine since the passage of the Judiciary Act of 1869, and Congress had altered the number of Justices six other times throughout U.S. history.[190] Roosevelt's "court packing" plan ran into intense political opposition from his own party, led by Vice President Garner since it upset the separation of powers.[191] A bipartisan coalition of liberals and conservatives of both parties opposed the bill, and Chief Justice Charles Evans Hughes broke with precedent by publicly advocating the defeat of the bill. Any chance of passing the bill ended with the death of Senate Majority Leader Joseph Taylor Robinson in July 1937.[192]
Starting with the 1937 case of West Coast Hotel Co. v. Parrish, the court began to take a more favorable view of economic regulations. Historians have described this as, "the switch in time that saved nine."[154] That same year, Roosevelt appointed a Supreme Court Justice for the first time, and by 1941, seven of the nine Justices had been appointed by Roosevelt.[g][193] After Parish, the Court shifted its focus from judicial review of economic regulations to the protection of civil liberties.[194] Four of Roosevelt's Supreme Court appointees, Felix Frankfurter, Robert H. Jackson, Hugo Black, and William O. Douglas, were particularly influential in reshaping the jurisprudence of the Court.[195][196]
With Roosevelt's influence on the wane following the failure of the Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937, conservative Democrats joined with Republicans to block the implementation of further New Deal programs.
Determined to overcome the opposition of conservative Democrats in Congress, Roosevelt became involved in the 1938 Democratic primaries, actively campaigning for challengers who were more supportive of New Deal reform. Roosevelt failed badly, managing to defeat only one of the ten targeted, a conservative Democrat from New York City.
Conservation and the environment
Roosevelt had a lifelong interest in the environment and conservation starting with his youthful interest in forestry on his family estate. Although he was never an outdoorsman or sportsman on Theodore Roosevelt's scale, his growth of the national systems was comparable.
GNP and unemployment rates
| Year | Lebergott | Darby |
|---|---|---|
| 1929 | 3.2 | 3.2 |
| 1932 | 23.6 | 22.9 |
| 1933 | 24.9 | 20.6 |
| 1934 | 21.7 | 16.0 |
| 1935 | 20.1 | 14.2 |
| 1936 | 16.9 | 9.9 |
| 1937 | 14.3 | 9.1 |
| 1938 | 19.0 | 12.5 |
| 1939 | 17.2 | 11.3 |
| 1940 | 14.6 | 9.5 |
Government spending increased from 8.0% of the gross national product (GNP)
Foreign policy (1933–1941)
The main foreign policy initiative of Roosevelt's first term was the
The rejection of the
Germany annexed Austria in 1938, and soon turned its attention to its eastern neighbors.[223] Roosevelt made it clear that, in the event of German aggression against Czechoslovakia, the U.S. would remain neutral.[224] After completion of the Munich Agreement and the execution of Kristallnacht, American public opinion turned against Germany, and Roosevelt began preparing for a possible war with Germany.[225] Relying on an interventionist political coalition of Southern Democrats and business-oriented Republicans, Roosevelt oversaw the expansion of U.S. airpower and war production capacity.[226]
When World War II began in September 1939 with Germany's invasion of Poland and Britain and France's subsequent declaration of war upon Germany, Roosevelt sought ways to assist Britain and France militarily.[227] Isolationist leaders like Charles Lindbergh and Senator William Borah successfully mobilized opposition to Roosevelt's proposed repeal of the Neutrality Act, but Roosevelt won Congressional approval of the sale of arms on a cash-and-carry basis.[228] He also began a regular secret correspondence with Britain's First Lord of the Admiralty, Winston Churchill, in September 1939—the first of 1,700 letters and telegrams between them.[229] Roosevelt forged a close personal relationship with Churchill, who became Prime Minister of the United Kingdom in May 1940.[230]
The
Election of 1940
In the months prior to the July
At the July 1940 Democratic Convention in Chicago, Roosevelt easily swept aside challenges from Farley and Vice President Garner, who had turned against Roosevelt in his second term because of his liberal economic and social policies.[237] To replace Garner on the ticket, Roosevelt turned to Secretary of Agriculture Henry Wallace of Iowa, a former Republican who strongly supported the New Deal and was popular in farm states.[238] The choice was strenuously opposed by many of the party's conservatives, who felt Wallace was too radical and "eccentric" in his private life to be an effective running mate. But Roosevelt insisted that without Wallace on the ticket he would decline re-nomination, and Wallace won the vice-presidential nomination, defeating Speaker of the House William B. Bankhead and other candidates.[237]
A late August poll taken by
Third and fourth terms (1941–1945)
Lead-up to the war
By late 1940, re-armament was in high gear, partly to expand and re-equip the Army and Navy and partly to become the "Arsenal of Democracy" for Britain and other countries.[246] With his Four Freedoms speech in January 1941, Roosevelt laid out the case for an Allied battle for basic rights throughout the world. Assisted by Willkie, Roosevelt won Congressional approval of the Lend-Lease program, which directed massive military and economic aid to Britain, and China.[247] In sharp contrast to the loans of World War I, there would be no repayment after the war.[248] As Roosevelt took a firmer stance against Japan, Germany, and Italy, American isolationists such as Charles Lindbergh and the America First Committee vehemently attacked Roosevelt as an irresponsible warmonger.[249] When Germany invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941, Roosevelt agreed to extend Lend-Lease to the Soviets. Thus, Roosevelt had committed the U.S. to the Allied side with a policy of "all aid short of war."[250] By July 1941, Roosevelt authorized the creation of the Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs (OCIAA) to counter perceived propaganda efforts in Latin America by Germany and Italy.[251][252]
In August 1941, Roosevelt and Churchill conducted a highly secret bilateral meeting in which they drafted the
Pearl Harbor and declarations of war
After the German invasion of Poland, the primary concern of both Roosevelt and his top military staff was on the war in Europe, but Japan also presented foreign policy challenges. Relations with Japan had continually deteriorated since its invasion of Manchuria in 1931, and they had further worsened with Roosevelt's support of China.[258] With the war in Europe occupying the attention of the major colonial powers, Japanese leaders eyed vulnerable colonies such as the Dutch East Indies, French Indochina, and British Malaya.[259] After Roosevelt announced a $100 million loan (equivalent to $1.9 billion in 2021) to China in reaction to Japan's occupation of northern French Indochina, Japan signed the Tripartite Pact with Germany and Italy. The pact bound each country to defend the others against attack, and Germany, Japan, and Italy became known as the Axis powers.[260] Overcoming those who favored invading the Soviet Union, the Japanese Army high command successfully advocated for the conquest of Southeast Asia to ensure continued access to raw materials.[261] In July 1941, after Japan occupied the remainder of French Indochina, Roosevelt cut off the sale of oil to Japan, depriving Japan of more than 95 percent of its oil supply.[262] He also placed the Philippine military under American command and reinstated General Douglas MacArthur into active duty to command U.S. forces in the Philippines.[263]
The Japanese were incensed by the embargo and Japanese leaders became determined to attack the United States unless it lifted the embargo. The Roosevelt administration was unwilling to reverse the policy, and Secretary of State Hull blocked a potential summit between Roosevelt and Prime Minister
A majority of scholars have rejected the conspiracy theories that Roosevelt, or any other high government officials, knew in advance about the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor.[269] The Japanese had kept their secrets closely guarded. Senior American officials were aware that war was imminent, but they did not expect an attack on Pearl Harbor.[270] Roosevelt had expected that the Japanese would attack either the Dutch East Indies or Thailand.[271]
War plans
In late December 1941, Churchill and Roosevelt met at the Arcadia Conference, which established a joint strategy between the U.S. and Britain. Both agreed on a
In 1942, Roosevelt formed a new body, the
Nuclear program
In August 1939,
Wartime conferences
Roosevelt coined the term "
In November 1943, Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin met to discuss strategy and post-war plans at the
Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin met for a second time at the February 1945
Course of the war
The Allies invaded
To command the invasion of France, Roosevelt chose General Dwight D. Eisenhower, who had successfully commanded a multinational coalition in North Africa and Sicily.[297] Eisenhower chose to launch Operation Overlord on June 6, 1944. Supported by 12,000 aircraft and the largest naval force ever assembled, the Allies successfully established a beachhead in Normandy and then advanced further into France.[277] Though reluctant to back an unelected government, Roosevelt recognized Charles de Gaulle's Provisional Government of the French Republic as the de facto government of France in July 1944. After most of France had been liberated from German occupation, Roosevelt granted formal recognition to de Gaulle's government in October 1944.[298] Over the following months, the Allies liberated more territory from Nazi occupation and began the invasion of Germany. By April 1945, Nazi resistance was crumbling in the face of advances by both the Western Allies and the Soviet Union.[299]
In the opening weeks of the war, Japan conquered the Philippines and the British and Dutch colonies in Southeast Asia. The Japanese advance reached its maximum extent by June 1942, when the U.S. Navy scored a decisive victory at the Battle of Midway. American and Australian forces then began a slow and costly strategy called island hopping or leapfrogging through the Pacific Islands, with the objective of gaining bases from which strategic airpower could be brought to bear on Japan and from which Japan could ultimately be invaded. In contrast to Hitler, Roosevelt took no direct part in the tactical naval operations, though he approved strategic decisions.[300] Roosevelt gave way in part to insistent demands from the public and Congress that more effort be devoted against Japan, but he always insisted on Germany first. The strength of the Japanese navy was decimated in the Battle of Leyte Gulf, and by April 1945 the Allies had re-captured much of their lost territory in the Pacific.[301]
Home front
The home front was subject to dynamic social changes throughout the war, though domestic issues were no longer Roosevelt's most urgent policy concern. The military buildup spurred economic growth. Unemployment fell in half from 7.7 million in spring 1940 to 3.4 million in fall 1941 and fell in half again to 1.5 million in fall 1942, out of a labor force of 54 million.
In 1942, with the United States now in the conflict, war production increased dramatically but fell short of the goals established by the president, due in part to manpower shortages.[306] The effort was also hindered by numerous strikes, especially among union workers in the coal mining and railroad industries, which lasted well into 1944.[307][308] Nonetheless, between 1941 and 1945, the United States produced 2.4 million trucks, 300,000 military aircraft, 88,400 tanks, and 40 billion rounds of ammunition. The production capacity of the United States dwarfed that of other countries; for example, in 1944, the United States produced more military aircraft than the combined production of Germany, Japan, Britain, and the Soviet Union.[309] The White House became the ultimate site for labor mediation, conciliation or arbitration. One particular battle royale occurred between Vice President Wallace, who headed the Board of Economic Warfare, and Jesse H. Jones, in charge of the Reconstruction Finance Corporation; both agencies assumed responsibility for the acquisition of rubber supplies and came to loggerheads over funding. Roosevelt resolved the dispute by dissolving both agencies.[310] In 1943, Roosevelt established the Office of War Mobilization to oversee the home front; the agency was led by James F. Byrnes, who came to be known as the "assistant president" due to his influence.[295]
Roosevelt's 1944
Declining health
Roosevelt, a chain-smoker throughout his entire adult life,
Hospital physicians and two outside specialists ordered Roosevelt to rest. His personal physician, Admiral Ross McIntire, created a daily schedule that banned business guests for lunch and incorporated two hours of rest each day. During the 1944 re-election campaign, McIntire denied several times that Roosevelt's health was poor; on October 12, for example, he announced that "The President's health is perfectly OK. There are absolutely no organic difficulties at all."[319] Roosevelt realized that his declining health could eventually make it impossible for him to continue as president, and in 1945 he told a confidant that he might resign from the presidency following the end of the war.[320]
Election of 1944
While some Democrats had opposed Roosevelt's nomination in 1940, the president faced little difficulty in securing his re-nomination at the 1944 Democratic National Convention. Roosevelt made it clear before the convention that he was seeking another term, and on the lone presidential ballot of the convention, Roosevelt won the vast majority of delegates, although a minority of Southern Democrats voted for Harry F. Byrd. Party leaders prevailed upon Roosevelt to drop Vice President Wallace from the ticket, believing him to be an electoral liability and a poor potential successor in case of Roosevelt's death. Roosevelt preferred Byrnes as Wallace's replacement but was convinced to support Senator Harry S. Truman of Missouri, who had earned renown for his investigation of war production inefficiency and was acceptable to the various factions of the party. On the second vice presidential ballot of the convention, Truman defeated Wallace to win the nomination.[321]
The Republicans nominated Thomas E. Dewey, the governor of New York, who had a reputation as a liberal in his party. They accused the Roosevelt administration of domestic corruption and bureaucratic inefficiency, but Dewey's most effective gambit was to raise discreetly the age issue. He assailed the President as a "tired old man" with "tired old men" in his cabinet, pointedly suggesting that the President's lack of vigor had produced a less than vigorous economic recovery.[134] Roosevelt, as most observers could see from his weight loss and haggard appearance, was a tired man in 1944. But upon entering the campaign in earnest in late September 1944, Roosevelt displayed enough passion and fight to allay most concerns and to deflect Republican attacks. With the war still raging, he urged voters not to "change horses in mid-stream."[134] Labor unions, which had grown rapidly in the war, fully supported Roosevelt. Roosevelt and Truman won the 1944 election by a comfortable margin, defeating Dewey and his running mate John W. Bricker with 53.4% of the popular vote and 432 out of the 531 electoral votes.[322] The president campaigned in favor of a strong United Nations, so his victory symbolized support for the nation's future participation in the international community.[323]
Final months and death
When Roosevelt returned to the United States from the Yalta Conference, many were shocked to see how old, thin and frail he looked. He spoke while seated in the well of the House, an unprecedented concession to his physical incapacity.[324] During March 1945, he sent strongly worded messages to Stalin accusing him of breaking his Yalta commitments over Poland, Germany, prisoners of war and other issues. When Stalin accused the western Allies of plotting behind his back a separate peace with Hitler, Roosevelt replied: "I cannot avoid a feeling of bitter resentment towards your informers, whoever they are, for such vile misrepresentations of my actions or those of my trusted subordinates."[325] On March 29, 1945, Roosevelt went to the Little White House at Warm Springs, Georgia, to rest before his anticipated appearance at the founding conference of the United Nations.
In the afternoon of April 12, 1945, in Warm Springs, Georgia, while sitting for a portrait, Roosevelt said "I have a terrific headache."[326][327] He then slumped forward in his chair, unconscious, and was carried into his bedroom. The president's attending cardiologist, Howard Bruenn, diagnosed the medical emergency as a massive intracerebral hemorrhage.[328] At 3:35 p.m. that day, Roosevelt died at the age of 63.[329]
The following morning, Roosevelt's body was placed in a flag-draped coffin and loaded onto the presidential train for the trip back to Washington.[330] Along the route, thousands flocked to the tracks to pay their respects. After a White House funeral on April 14, Roosevelt was transported by train from Washington, D.C., to his place of birth at Hyde Park. On April 15 he was buried, per his wish, in the rose garden of his Springwood estate.[331]
Roosevelt's declining physical health had been kept secret from the public. His death was met with shock and grief across the world.[332] Germany surrendered during the 30-day mourning period, but Harry Truman (who had succeeded Roosevelt as president) ordered flags to remain at half-staff; he also dedicated Victory in Europe Day and its celebrations to Roosevelt's memory.[333] World War II finally ended with the signed surrender of Japan in September.[334]
Civil rights, repatriation, internment, and the Jews
Roosevelt was viewed as a hero by many African Americans, Catholics, and Jews, and he was highly successful in attracting large majorities of these voters into his New Deal coalition.
Lynching
Roosevelt stopped short of joining
Japanese-Americans
The attack on Pearl Harbor raised concerns in the public regarding the possibility of sabotage by Japanese Americans. This suspicion was fed by long-standing racism against Japanese immigrants, as well as the findings of the Roberts Commission, which concluded that the attack on Pearl Harbor had been assisted by Japanese spies. On February 19, 1942, President Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066, which relocated 110,000 Japanese-American citizens and immigrants, most of whom lived on the Pacific Coast.[154] They were forced to liquidate their properties and businesses and interned in hastily built camps in interior, harsh locations. Distracted by other issues, Roosevelt had delegated the decision for internment to Secretary of War Stimson, who in turn relied on the judgment of Assistant Secretary of War John J. McCloy. The Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of the executive order in the 1944 case of Korematsu v. United States.[343] Many German and Italian citizens were also arrested or placed into internment camps.[344]
Jews
There is controversy among historians about Roosevelt's attitude to Jews and the Holocaust. Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr. says Roosevelt "did what he could do" to help Jews; David Wyman says Roosevelt's record on Jewish refugees and their rescue is "very poor" and one of the worst failures of his presidency.[345] In 1923, as a member of the Harvard board of directors, Roosevelt decided there were too many Jewish students at Harvard University and helped institute a quota to limit the number of Jews admitted to Harvard.[346] After Kristallnacht in 1938, Roosevelt had his ambassador to Germany recalled back to Washington. He did not loosen immigration quotas but did allow German Jews already in the US on visas to stay indefinitely.[347] According to Rafael Medoff, the US president could have saved 190,000 Jewish lives by telling his State Department to fill immigration quotas to the legal limit, but his administration discouraged and disqualified Jewish refugees based on its prohibitive requirements that left less than 25% of the quotas filled.[346]
Hitler chose to implement the "
Legacy
Historical reputation
Roosevelt is widely considered to be one of the most important figures in the history of the United States,[352] as well as one of the most influential figures of the 20th century.[353] Historians and political scientists consistently rank Roosevelt, George Washington, and Abraham Lincoln as the three greatest presidents, although the order varies.[354][355][356][357] Reflecting on Roosevelt's presidency, "which brought the United States through the Great Depression and World War II to a prosperous future", biographer Jean Edward Smith said in 2007, "He lifted himself from a wheelchair to lift the nation from its knees."[358]
His commitment to the working class and unemployed in need of relief in the nation's longest recession made him a favorite of the blue collar workers, labor unions, and ethnic minorities.[359] The rapid expansion of government programs that occurred during Roosevelt's term redefined the role of the government in the United States, and Roosevelt's advocacy of government social programs was instrumental in redefining liberalism for coming generations.[360] Roosevelt firmly established the United States' leadership role on the world stage, with his role in shaping and financing World War II. His isolationist critics faded away, and even the Republicans joined in his overall policies.[361] He also created a new understanding of the presidency, permanently increasing the power of the president at the expense of Congress.[362]
His Second Bill of Rights became, according to historian Joshua Zeitz, "the basis of the Democratic Party's aspirations for the better part of four decades."[312] After his death, his widow, Eleanor, continued to be a forceful presence in U.S. and world politics, serving as delegate to the conference which established the United Nations and championing civil rights and liberalism generally. Some junior New Dealers played leading roles in the presidencies of Truman, John Kennedy, and Lyndon Johnson. Kennedy came from a Roosevelt-hating family. Historian William Leuchtenburg says that before 1960, "Kennedy showed a conspicuous lack of inclination to identify himself as a New Deal liberal." He adds, as president, "Kennedy never wholly embraced the Roosevelt tradition and at times he deliberately severed himself from it."[363] By contrast, young Lyndon Johnson had been an enthusiastic New Dealer and a favorite of Roosevelt. Johnson modelled his presidency on Roosevelt's and relied heavily on New Deal lawyer Abe Fortas, as well as James H. Rowe, Anna M. Rosenberg, Thomas Gardiner Corcoran, and Benjamin V. Cohen.[364][365]
During his presidency, and continuing to a lesser extent afterwards, there has been much
Memorials
Roosevelt's
See also
- Cultural depictions of Franklin D. Roosevelt
- August Adolph Gennerich – his bodyguard
- List of Allied World War II conferences
- List of federal political sex scandals in the United States
- Sunshine Special (automobile) – Roosevelt's limousine
- Air Mail scandal
Notes
- ^ It was common for boys to wear what was considered "gender-neutral" clothing, thus boys wore dresses up until they were 6 or 7.[2]
- ^ In 2008, Columbia awarded Roosevelt a posthumous Juris Doctor degree.[27]
- ^ State legislatures elected United States senators prior to the ratification of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913.
- ^ Roosevelt was the last president inaugurated on March 4. The Twentieth Amendment changed presidential inaugurations to January 20, from 1937.
- ^ Biographer Jean Edward Smith notes that "the significance of the repeal of the two-thirds rule...is difficult to overstate. Not only did the power of the South in the Democratic party diminish, but without the repeal, it is open to question whether FDR could have been renominated in 1940."[184]
- ^ The 1964 Democratic ticket of Lyndon B. Johnson and Hubert Humphrey would later set a new record, taking 61.1% of the popular vote
- Harlan Fiske Stone and Owen Roberts. However, in 1941, Roosevelt elevated Stone to the position of Chief Justice.
- ^ This table shows the estimated unemployment related as calculated by two economists. Michael Darby's estimate counts individuals on work relief programs as employed, while Stanley Lebergott's estimate counts individuals on work relief programs as unemployed[208]
- ^ The Twenty-second Amendment ratified in 1951, would bar any individual from winning more than two presidential elections.
- ^ Hull and others in the administration were unwilling to recognize the Japanese conquest of China and feared that an American accommodation with Japan would leave the Soviet Union vulnerable to a two-front war.[264]
- Hungary, and Romania, all of which had joined the Axis bloc.
- ^ The Germans stopped research on nuclear weapons in 1942, choosing to focus on other projects. Japan gave up its own program in 1943.[280]
- ^ WPA workers were counted as unemployed by this set of statistics.[302]
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- ^ Burns 1956, p. 454.
- ^ Winston Groom, The Allies: Roosevelt, Churchill, Stalin, and the Unlikely Alliance That Won World War II (2018)
- ^ Joseph E. Persico, Roosevelt's Centurions: FDR and the Commanders He Led to Victory in World War II (2013).
- ^ Eric Larrabee, Commander in Chief: Franklin Delano Roosevelt, His Lieutenants, and Their War (1987)
- ^ Herman 2012, pp. 128–29.
- ^ Smith 2007, pp. 488–90.
- ^ Burns 1970, p. 95.
- .
- ^ Churchill 1977, p. 119.
- ^ Anthony, Edwin D. Records of the Office of Inter-American Affairs. National Archives and Record Services – General Services Administration, Washington D.C., 1973, P. 1-8 Library of Congress Catalog No. 73-600146 Records of the Office of Inter-American Affairs at the U.S. National Archive at www.archives.gov
- ^ Burns 1970, pp. 126–28.
- ^ Gunther 1950, pp. 15–16.
- ^ Smith 2007, p. 502.
- ^ Moss, George Donelson (1993). America in the Twentieth Century. Simon & Schuster Company. p. 210.
- ^ Burns 1970, pp. 141–42.
- ^ Smith 2007, pp. 506–08.
- ^ Smith 2007, pp. 509–10.
- ^ Smith 2007, pp. 510–11.
- ^ Smith 2007, pp. 513–14.
- ^ Burns 1970, pp. 134–46.
- ^ Smith 2007, pp. 516–17.
- ^ Smith 2007, pp. 522–23.
- ^ Smith 2007, pp. 518–30.
- ^ Smith 2007, pp. 531–33.
- ^ Smith 2007, pp. 533–39.
- ^ Sainsbury 1994, p. 184.
- ISBN 978-1-4422-5564-7.
- ^ Smith 2007, pp. 523–39.
- ^ Burns 1970, p. 159.
- ^ Smith 2007, pp. 545–47.
- ^ Burns 1970, pp. 180–85.
- ^ Smith 2007, p. 547.
- ISBN 978-0-19-507198-6.
- ^ Smith 2007, p. 546.
- ^ a b Smith 2007, pp. 598–99.
- ISBN 978-1-59420-435-7.
- ^ Brands 2009, pp. 678–80.
- ^ Smith 2007, p. 580.
- ^ Smith 2007, pp. 578–81.
- ^ Doenecke & Stoler 2005, pp. 109–10.
- ^ Smith 2007, pp. 557–59.
- ^ Smith 2007, pp. 560–61.
- ^ Smith 2007, pp. 587–88.
- ^ Leuchtenburg 2015, pp. 214–16.
- ^ Townsend Hoopes, and Douglas Brinkley, FDR and the Creation of the UN (Yale UP, 1997) pp. ix, 175.
- ^ Smith 2007, pp. 623–24.
- ^ Leuchtenburg 2015, pp. 233–34.
- ^ Herring 2008, pp. 584–87.
- ^ Bumiller, Elizabeth (May 16, 2005). "60 Years Later, Debating Yalta All Over Again". The New York Times. Retrieved October 14, 2017.
- ^ Smith 2007, pp. 563–64.
- ^ Smith 2007, pp. 565–67.
- ^ Smith 2007, pp. 573–74.
- ^ a b c Smith 2007, pp. 575–76.
- ^ Smith 2007, pp. 581–82.
- ^ Smith 2007, pp. 596–97.
- ^ Smith 2007, pp. 613–17.
- ^ Smith 2007, pp. 630–31.
- ^ Burns 1970, p. 228.
- ^ Brands 2009, p. 785.
- ^ Statistical Abstract, US: Bureau of the Census, 1946, p. 173
- ^ Schweikart & Allen 2004, p. 602.
- ^ Leuchtenburg 2015, pp. 221–22.
- ^ Burns 1970, p. 436.
- ^ Burns 1970, p. 333.
- ^ Burns 1970, p. 343.
- ^ Herman 2012, pp. 139–44, 151, 246.
- ^ Smith 2007, pp. 571–72.
- ^ Burns 1970, pp. 339–42.
- ^ Leuchtenburg 2015, pp. 223–25.
- ^ a b Zeitz, Joshua (November 4, 2018). "Democrats Aren't Moving Left. They're Returning to Their Roots". Politico. Retrieved November 17, 2018.
- ^ Smith 2007, pp. 584–85.
- ^ "Medical Research Pays Off for All Americans". NIH Medline Plus. National Institutes of Health. Summer 2007. Retrieved July 25, 2014.
- ^ Hastings, Max (January 19, 2009). "Franklin D Roosevelt: The man who conquered fear". The Independent. Retrieved July 25, 2014.
- ^ Burns 1970, p. 448.
- ^ Lerner, Barron H. (November 23, 2007). "How Much Confidence Should We Have in the Doctor's Account of FDR's Death?". History News Network. George Washington University.
- PMID 4908628.
- ^ Gunther 1950, pp. 372–74.
- ^ Dallek 2017, pp. 618–19.
- ^ Smith 2007, pp. 617–19.
- ^ Jordan 2011, p. 321.
- ^ Burns 1970, pp. 533, 562.
- ^ Dallek 1995, p. 520.
- ^ Burns 1970, p. 587.
- ^ "Franklin D. Roosevelt Day by Day – April". In Roosevelt History. Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library and Museum Collections and Programs. Retrieved May 14, 2012.
- Daily News. New York. April 13, 1945. Retrieved December 29, 2017.
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- ^ Andrew Glass. "President Franklin D. Roosevelt dies at age 63, April 12, 1945". Politico. Retrieved May 21, 2020.
- ^ "Roosevelt Funeral Train | C-SPAN.org". www.c-span.org. Retrieved February 7, 2023.
- ^ Dallek 2017, p. 620.
- ^ Allies Overrun Germany (video). Universal Newsreel. 1945. Retrieved February 21, 2012.
- ISBN 978-0-671-86920-5.
- ^ Leuchtenburg 2015, pp. 243–52.
- ^ "Jewish Vote in U.S. Elections". Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs. Retrieved February 7, 2010.
- ISBN 9780826339737.
- ^ Johnson, Kevin (Fall 2005). "The Forgotten Repatriation of Persons of Mexican Ancestry and Lessons for the War on Terror". Vol. 26, no. 1. Davis, California: Pace Law Review.
- ISBN 978-0-231-11030-3.
- ISBN 978-0-19-502418-0.
- ^ a b McJimsey 2000, pp. 162–63.
- ^ Dallek 2017, pp. 307–08.
- JSTOR 2677909.
- ^ Smith 2007, pp. 549–53.
- ^ "World War II Enemy Alien Control Program Overview". National Archives. September 23, 2016.
- ^ Everhart, Karen (May 9, 1994). "FDR defenders enlist TV critics to refute Holocaust film". Current. Retrieved April 16, 2022.
- ^ a b c Medoff, Rafael (April 7, 2013). "What FDR said about Jews in private". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved April 16, 2022.
- ^ Breitman & Lichtman 2013, pp. 114–115.
- ^ "Jan Karski". Holocaust Encyclopedia. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Retrieved April 16, 2022.
- ^ "Jan Karski, Humanity's hero: The Story of Poland's Wartime Emissary". Museum of Polish History. Retrieved April 16, 2022.
- ^ Glass, Andrew (July 28, 2018). "Holocaust eyewitness briefs FDR, July 28, 1943". Politico. Retrieved April 16, 2022.
- ^ Smith 2007, pp. 607–13.
- ^ Appleby, Joyce; Brands, H.W.; Dallek, Robert; Fitzpatrick, Ellen; Goodwin, Doris Kearns; Gordon, John Steele; Kennedy, David M.; McDougall, Walter; Noll, Mark; Wood, Gordon S. (December 2006). "The 100 Most Influential Figures in American History". The Atlantic. Retrieved October 13, 2017.
- ^ Walsh, Kenneth T. (April 10, 2015). "FDR: The President Who Made America Into a Superpower". U.S. News & World Report. Retrieved October 13, 2017.
- ^ "Presidential Historians Survey 2017". C-SPAN Survey of Presidential Leadership. C-SPAN.
- ^ "Presidential Leadership – The Rankings". The Wall Street Journal. September 12, 2005. Archived from the original on November 2, 2005. Retrieved May 4, 2015.
- ^ Rottinghaus, Brandon; Vaughn, Justin (February 16, 2015). "New ranking of U.S. presidents puts Lincoln at No. 1, Obama at 18; Kennedy judged most overrated". The Washington Post. Retrieved May 4, 2015.
- JSTOR 2657937.
- ^ Smith 2007, p. ix.
- ISBN 9780691143835.
- ISBN 978-0-691-13475-8
- ^ Black 2005, pp. 1126–27.
- ^ Leuchtenburg 2015, pp. 174–75.
- ISBN 978-0-8014-8737-8
- ^ Leuchtenburg, pp. 208, 218, 226.
- ^ John Massaro, "LBJ and the Fortas Nomination for Chief Justice." Political Science Quarterly 97.4 (1982): 603–621.
- ^ Dallek 2017, pp. 624–25.
- ^ Wyman 1984.
- ^ Robinson 2001.
- ^ Dallek 2017, p. 626.
- ^ "Franklin Delano Roosevelt Memorial". National Park Service. Retrieved January 19, 2018.
- ^ jessiekratz (April 10, 2015). "The other FDR Memorial". Pieces of History. National Archives. Retrieved June 19, 2017.
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- ^ "COMING TO LIGHT: The Louis I. Kahn Monument to Franklin D. Roosevelt". archweb.cooper.edu. Retrieved September 25, 2021.
Works cited
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- ISBN 978-1-58648-282-4..
- ISBN 978-0-307-27794-7.
- Breitman, Richard; OCLC 812248674,
- Brinkley, Douglas (2016). Rightful Heritage: Franklin D. Roosevelt and the Land of America. HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-06-208923-6.
- Burns, James MacGregor (1956). Roosevelt: The Lion and the Fox. Easton Press. ISBN 978-0-15-678870-0.
- ——— (1970). Roosevelt: The Soldier of Freedom. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. ISBN 978-0-15-678870-0.
- Campbell, James E. (2006). "Party Systems and Realignments in the United States, 1868–2004". Social Science History. 30 (3): 359–386. JSTOR 40267912.
- OCLC 834874.
- ISBN 978-0-395-41057-8.
- ——— (2017). Franklin D. Roosevelt: A Political Life. Viking. ISBN 978-0-69-818172-4.
- Dighe, Ranjit S. "Saving private capitalism: The US bank holiday of 1933." Essays in Economic & Business History 29 (2011) online
- Doenecke, Justus D; Stoler, Mark A (2005), Debating Franklin D. Roosevelt's Foreign Policies, 1933–1945, Rowman & Littlefield, ISBN 978-0-8476-9415-0
- OCLC 459748221
- Frank Freidel, Franklin D. Roosevelt The Apprenticeship (vol 1 1952) to 1918, online
- Frank Freidel, Franklin D. Roosevelt The Ordeal (1954), covers 1919 to 1928, online
- Frank Freidel, Franklin D. Roosevelt The Triumph (1956) covers 1929–32, online
- Frank Freidel, Franklin D. Roosevelt Launching the New Deal (1973).
- Fried, Albert (2001). FDR and His Enemies: A History. St. Martin's Press. pp. 120–23. ISBN 978-1-250-10659-9.
- Goldman, Armond S.; Goldman, Daniel A. (2017). Prisoners of Time: The Misdiagnosis of FDR's 1921 Illness. EHDP Press. ISBN 978-1-939-82403-5.
- ISBN 978-0-684-80448-4.
- Gunther, John (1950). Roosevelt in Retrospect. Harper & Brothers.
- Hawley, Ellis (1995). The New Deal and the Problem of Monopoly. Fordham University Press. ISBN 978-0-8232-1609-3.
- Herman, Arthur (2012). Freedom's Forge: How American Business Produced Victory in World War II. Random House. ISBN 978-0-679-60463-1.
- Herring, George C. (2008). From Colony to Superpower; U.S. Foreign Relations Since 1776. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-507822-0.
- Jordan, David M (2011). FDR, Dewey, and the Election of 1944. Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-35683-3..
- ISBN 978-0-19-503834-7..
- ISBN 978-0-393-07459-8.
- Leuchtenburg, William (2015). The American President: From Teddy Roosevelt to Bill Clinton. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-517616-2.
- ISBN 978-0-06-133025-4.
- McJimsey, George (2000). The Presidency of Franklin Delano Roosevelt. University Press of Kansas.
- ISBN 978-0-671-45495-1.
- Norton, Mary Beth (2009). A People and a Nation: A History of the United States. Since 1865. Cengage. ISBN 978-0-547-17560-7.
- Robinson, Greg (2001), By Order of the President: FDR and the Internment of Japanese Americans, ISBN 978-1-5226-7771-0
- Roosevelt, Franklin; Roosevelt, Elliott (1970). F.D.R.: His Personal Letters, 1928-1945. Vol. 1. Duell, Sloan, and Pearce.
- ISBN 978-0-374-15857-6.
- Sainsbury, Keith (1994). Churchill and Roosevelt at War: The War They Fought and the Peace They Hoped to Make. New York University Press. ISBN 978-0-8147-7991-0.
- Savage, Sean J. (1991). Roosevelt, the Party Leader, 1932–1945. University Press of Kentucky. ISBN 978-0-8131-3079-8.
- Schweikart, Larry; Allen, Michael (2004). A Patriot's History of the United States: From Columbus's Great Discovery to the War on Terror. Penguin Group US. ISBN 978-1-101-21778-8.
- ISBN 978-1-4000-6121-1.
- Sternsher, Bernard (Summer 1975). "The Emergence of the New Deal Party System: A Problem in Historical Analysis of Voter Behavior". JSTOR 202828.
- Tobin, James (2013). The Man He Became: How FDR Defied Polio to Win the Presidency. Simon and Schuster. pp. 4–7. ISBN 978-1-4516-9867-1.
- ISBN 978-1-4179-8926-3.
- Underwood, Jeffery S. (1991). The Wings of Democracy: The Influence of Air Power on the Roosevelt Administration, 1933–1941. Texas A&M University Press. ISBN 978-0-89096-388-3.
- ISBN 978-0-385-35306-9.
- Winkler, Allan M. (2006). Franklin D. Roosevelt and the Making of Modern America. Longman. ISBN 978-0-321-41285-0.
- ISBN 978-0-394-42813-0.
Further reading
Biographical
- Daniels, Roger (2015). Franklin D. Roosevelt: Road to the New Deal, 1882–1939. University of Illinois Press. ISBN 978-0-252-03951-5..
- ——— (2016). Franklin D. Roosevelt: The War Years, 1939–1945. University of Illinois Press. ISBN 978-0-252-03952-2.
- Freidel, Frank (1990), Franklin D. Roosevelt: A Rendezvous with Destiny (scholarly biography), vol. one volume, ISBN 978-0-316-29260-3; covers entire life' online free to borrow
- Graham, Otis L. and Meghan Robinson Wander, eds. Franklin D. Roosevelt: His Life and Times. (1985). An encyclopedic reference. online
- ISBN 978-0-8050-6959-4.
- Pederson, William D., ed. (2011). A Companion to Franklin D. Roosevelt. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-4443-9517-4.; 35 essays by scholars.
- Riccards, Michael P., and Cheryl A. Flagg eds. Party Politics in the Age of Roosevelt: The Making of Modern America (2022) excerpt emphasis on FDR and his Democratic party
- ISBN 978-0-06-015451-6
- ——— (1992), A First-Class Temperament: The Emergence of Franklin Roosevelt (popular biography), ISBN 978-0-06-016066-1: covers 1905–32.
Scholarly topical studies
- Badger, Anthony (2008), FDR: The First Hundred Days, ISBN 978-0-8090-4441-2200 pp; overview by leading British scholar.
- Collins, Robert M. (2002). More: The Politics of Economic Growth in Postwar America. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-515263-0.
- Leuchtenburg, William E (2005), "Showdown on the Court", Smithsonian, 36 (2): 106–13, ISSN 0037-7333.
- McMahon, Kevin J (2004), Reconsidering Roosevelt on Race: How the Presidency Paved the Road to Brown, ISBN 978-0-226-50088-1.
- Miscamble, Wilson D. (2007). From Roosevelt to Truman: Potsdam, Hiroshima, and the Cold War. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-86244-8.
- Pederson, William D (2011), A Companion to Franklin D. Roosevelt, Wiley-Blackwell, ISBN 978-1-4443-3016-8, 768 pages; essays by scholars covering major historiographical themes.
- ISBN 978-0-19-532634-5, balanced summary
- ISBN 978-0-7006-1687-9.
- Rosen, Elliot A (2005), Roosevelt, the Great Depression, and the Economics of Recovery, ISBN 978-0-8139-2368-0.
- OCLC 466716, the classic narrative history. Strongly supports FDR.
- Shaw, Stephen K; Pederson, William D; Williams, Frank J, eds. (2004), Franklin D. Roosevelt and the Transformation of the Supreme Court, ISBN 978-0-7656-1033-1.
- Sitkoff, Harvard, ed. (1985), Fifty Years Later: The New Deal Evaluated (essays by scholars), ISBN 978-0-394-33548-3.
Foreign policy and World War II
- Berthon, Simon; Potts, Joanna (2007). Warlords: An Extraordinary Re-creation of World War II through the Eyes and Minds of Hitler, Churchill, Roosevelt, and Stalin. Da Capo Press. ISBN 978-0-306-81650-5.
- ISBN 978-0-684-81027-0.
- Cole, Wayne S (March 1957), "American Entry into World War II: A Historiographical Appraisal", The Mississippi Valley Historical Review, 43 (4): 595–617, S2CID 165593382.
- Feis, Herbert. Churchill-Roosevelt-Stalin: The War they waged and the Peace they sought (1953).
- Fenby, Jonathan. Alliance: the inside story of how Roosevelt, Stalin and Churchill won one war and began another (2015).
- Glantz, Mary E (2005), FDR and the Soviet Union: The President's Battles over Foreign Policy, U. Press of Kansas, ISBN 978-0-7006-1365-6, 253 pp.
- Hamilton, Nigel (2014), The Mantle of Command: FDR at War, 1941–1942, Houghton Mifflin Harcourt 514 pp.
- Kaiser, David. No End Save Victory: How FDR Led the Nation into War (2014) ISBN 046501982X
- Lacey, James. The Washington War: FDR's Inner Circle and the Politics of Power That Won World War II (2019)
- OCLC 404227. highly detailed and influential two-volume semi-official history
- Mayers, David. (2013) FDR's Ambassadors and the Diplomacy of Crisis: From the Rise of Hitler to the End of World War II.
- Larrabee, Eric (2004), Commander in Chief: Franklin Delano Roosevelt, His Lieutenants, and Their War, ISBN 978-0-06-039050-1.
- ISBN 978-0-19-928411-5
- Reynolds, David, and Vladimir Pechatnov, eds. The Kremlin Letters: Stalin's Wartime Correspondence with Churchill and Roosevelt (2019)
- ISBN 9780060138455, Pulitzer Prize.
- ISBN 978-0-521-44317-3. Overall history of the war; strong on diplomacy of FDR and other main leaders.
Criticism
- OCLC 457149. A revisionist blames FDR for inciting Japan to attack.
- Best, Gary Dean (1991), Pride, Prejudice, and Politics: Roosevelt Versus Recovery, 1933–1938, Praeger, ISBN 978-0-275-93524-5; summarizes newspaper editorials.
- ——— (2002), The Retreat from Liberalism: Collectivists versus Progressives in the New Deal Years, Praeger, ISBN 978-0-275-94656-2; criticizes intellectuals who supported FDR.
- Russett, Bruce M (1997), No Clear and Present Danger: A Skeptical View of the United States Entry into World War II (2nd ed.), says US should have let USSR and Germany destroy each other.
- Plaud, Joseph J (2005), Historical Perspectives on Franklin D. Roosevelt, American Foreign Policy, and the Holocaust, The FDR American Heritage Center Museum, archived from the original on January 12, 2014.
- ISBN 978-0-7615-0165-7.
- Schivelbusch, Wolfgang (2006), Three New Deals: Reflections on Roosevelt's America, Mussolini's Italy, and Hitler's Germany, 1933–1939.
- Shlaes, Amity (2007), The Forgotten Man: A New History of the Great Depression (A critical evaluation of the effect of the New Deal's policies on the Depression)
- Smiley, Gene (1993), Rethinking the Great Depression (short essay) by libertarian economist who blames both Hoover and FDR.
Rhetoric
- Buhite, Russell D; Levy, David W, eds. (1993), FDR's Fireside Chats.
- Craig, Douglas B (2005), Fireside Politics: Radio and Political Culture in the United States, 1920–1940.
- Crowell, Laura (1952), "Building the 'Four Freedoms' Speech", Communication Monographs, 22 (5): 266–83, .
- Houck, Davis W (2001), Rhetoric as Currency: Hoover, Roosevelt, and the Great Depression, Texas A&M University Press.
- ——— (2002), FDR and Fear Itself: The First Inaugural Address, Texas A&M University Press.
- Roosevelt, Franklin D. (2005), My Friends: Twenty Eight History Making Speeches, Kessinger Publishing, ISBN 978-1-4179-9610-0
- ——— (1988), Franklin D. Roosevelt's Rhetorical Presidency, Greenwood Press.
- ISBN 978-1-5107-5216-0.
Historiography
- Hendrickson, Jr., Kenneth E. "FDR Biographies," in William D. Pederson, ed. A Companion to Franklin D. Roosevelt (2011) pp 1–14
- Provizer, Norman W. "Eleanor Roosevelt Biographies," in William D. Pederson, ed. A Companion to Franklin D. Roosevelt (2011) pp 15–33
Primary sources
- Cantril, Hadley; Strunk, Mildred, eds. (1951), Public Opinion, 1935–1946, massive compilation of many public opinion polls from the US.
- Loewenheim, Francis L; Langley, Harold D, eds. (1975), Roosevelt and Churchill: Their Secret Wartime Correspondence.
- Roosevelt, Franklin Delano (1945) [1938], Rosenman, Samuel Irving (ed.), The Public Papers and Addresses of Franklin D. Roosevelt, vol. 13 volumes.
- ——— (1946), Zevin, BD (ed.), Nothing to Fear: The Selected Addresses of Franklin Delano Roosevelt, 1932–1945.
- ——— (2005) [1947], Taylor, Myron C (ed.), Wartime Correspondence Between President Roosevelt and Pope Pius XII (reprint), Kessinger Publishing, ISBN 978-1-4191-6654-9.
- Roosevelt, Franklin. Franklin D. Roosevelt and foreign affairs (FDR Library, 1969) 14 vol. online free to borrow; covers Jan 1933 to Aug 1939; 9 volumes are online
- Nixon, Edgar B, ed. (1969), Franklin D Roosevelt and Foreign Affairs (3 vol), covers 1933–37. 2nd series 1937–39 available on microfiche and in a 14 vol print edition at some academic libraries.
External links
Definitions from Wiktionary
Media from Commons
Quotations from Wikiquote
Texts from Wikisource
Data from Wikidata
| Library resources about Franklin D. Roosevelt |
| By Franklin D. Roosevelt |
|---|
- Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library and Museum
- Franklin Delano Roosevelt Memorial, Washington, DC
- Full text and audio of a number of Roosevelt's speeches – Miller Center of Public Affairs
- Franklin Delano Roosevelt collected news and commentary at The New York Times
- Franklin Delano Roosevelt: A Resource Guide from the Library of Congress
- Appearances on C-SPAN
- "Life Portrait of Franklin D. Roosevelt", from C-SPAN's American Presidents: Life Portraits, October 11, 1999
- The Presidents: FDR – an American Experience documentary
- Franklin Delano Roosevelt: Selections from His Writings
- Works by Franklin Delano Roosevelt at Project Gutenberg
- Works by Franklin D. Roosevelt at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
- Works by or about Franklin D. Roosevelt at Internet Archive
