Franks
Franci | |
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Old Frankish, Vulgar Latin | |
Religion | |
Originally Frankish paganism, later Roman Christianity | |
Related ethnic groups | |
Germanic peoples, Belgians, French people, Dutch people, Lombards, Germans, Austrians, Swiss people, Normans |
The Franks (
Although the Frankish name does not appear until the 3rd century, at least some of the original Frankish tribes had long been known to the Romans under their own names, both as allies providing soldiers, and as enemies. The term is first used to describe the tribes working together to raid Roman territory. Frankish peoples subsequently living inside Rome's frontier on the Rhine river are often divided by historians into two groups – the
In the middle of the 5th century,
In 870 the Frankish realm came to be permanently divided between western and eastern kingdoms, which were the predecessors of the future Kingdom of France and Holy Roman Empire respectively. It is the western kingdom whose inhabitants eventually came to be known as "the French" (French: Les Français, German: Die Franzosen, Dutch: De Fransen, etc.) and this kingdom is the forerunner of the nation state of France. However, in various historical contexts, such as during the medieval crusades, not only the French, but also people from neighbouring regions in Western Europe, continued to be referred to collectively as Franks. The crusaders in particular had a lasting impact on the use of Frank-related names for Western Europeans in many non-European languages.[2][3][4]
Etymology
The name Franci was not a tribal name, but within a few centuries it had eclipsed the names of the original peoples who constituted the Frankish population. Following the precedents of Edward Gibbon and Jacob Grimm,[5] the name of the Franks has been linked with the English adjective frank, originally meaning "free".[6] There have also been proposals that Frank comes from the Germanic word for "javelin" (such as in Old English franca or Old Norse frakka).[7] Words in other Germanic languages meaning "fierce", "bold" or "insolent" (German frech, Middle Dutch vrac, Old English frǣc and Old Norwegian frakkr), may also be significant.[8]
Mythological origins
Apart from the History of the Franks by Gregory of Tours, two early sources relate the mythological origin of the Franks: a 7th-century work known as the Chronicle of Fredegar and the anonymous Liber Historiae Francorum, written a century later.
Many say that the Franks originally came from Pannonia and first inhabited the banks of the Rhine. Then they crossed the river, marched through Thuringia, and set up in each county district [pagus] and each city [civitas] longhaired kings chosen from their foremost and most noble family.
— Gregory of Tours, History of the Franks (6th c. CE)[14]
The author of the Chronicle of Fredegar claimed that the Franks came originally from Troy and quoted the works of Virgil and Hieronymus:
Blessed Jerome has written about the ancient kings of the Franks, whose story was first told by the poet Virgil: their first king was Priam and, after Troy was captured by trickery, they departed. Afterwards they had as king Friga, then they split into two parts, the first going into Macedonia, the second group, which left Asia with Friga were called the Frigii, settled on the banks of the Danube and the Ocean Sea. Again splitting into, two groups, half of them entered Europe with their king Francio. After crossing Europe with their wives and children they occupied the banks of the Rhine and not far from the Rhine began to build the city of "Troy" (Colonia Traiana-Xanten).
— Fredegar, Chronicle of Fredegar (7th c. CE)[14]
According to historian Patrick J. Geary, those two stories are "alike in betraying both the fact that the Franks knew little about their background and that they may have felt some inferiority in comparison with other peoples of antiquity who possessed an ancient name and glorious tradition. [...] Both legends are of course equally fabulous for, even more than most barbarian peoples, the Franks possessed no common history, ancestry, or tradition of a heroic age of migration. Like their Alemannic neighbours, they were by the sixth century a fairly recent creation, a coalition of Rhenish tribal groups who long maintained separate identities and institutions."[15]
The other work, the Liber Historiae Francorum, previously known as Gesta regum Francorum before its republication in 1888 by Bruno Krusch,
History
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Early history
The most important contemporary sources mentioning the early Franks include the
- A Roman marching-song joyfully recorded in a fourth-century source, is associated with the 260s; but the Franks' first appearance in a contemporary source was in 289. [...] The from c. 364 to 375.
The Franks were described in Roman texts both as allies (laeti) and enemies (dediticii). About the year 260 one group of Franks penetrated as far as Tarragona in present-day Spain, where they plagued the region for about a decade before they were subdued and expelled by the Romans. In 287 or 288, the Roman Caesar Maximian forced a Frankish leader Genobaud and his people to surrender without a fight.
In 288 the emperor
The Life of Aurelian, which was possibly written by Vopiscus, mentions that in 328, Frankish raiders were captured by the 6th Legion stationed at Mainz. As a result of this incident, 700 Franks were killed and 300 were sold into slavery.[24][25] Frankish incursions over the Rhine became so frequent that the Romans began to settle the Franks on their borders in order to control them.
The Franks appear to be mentioned in the
Salians
The Salians were first mentioned by
Some decades later, Franks in the same region, possibly the Salians, controlled the River Scheldt and were disrupting transport links to Britain in the English Channel. Although Roman forces managed to pacify them, they failed to expel the Franks, who continued to be feared as pirates.
The Salians are generally seen as the predecessors of the Franks who pushed southwestwards into what is now modern France, who eventually came to be ruled by the Merovingians (see below). This is because when the Merovingian dynasty published the Salian law (
Records of Childeric show him to have been active together with Roman forces in the Loire region, quite far to the south. His descendants came to rule Roman Gaul all the way to there, and this became the Frankish kingdom of Neustria, the basis of what would become medieval France. Childeric's son Clovis I also took control of the more independent Frankish kingdoms east of the Silva Carbonaria and Belgica II. This later became the Frankish kingdom of Austrasia, where the early legal code was referred to as "Ripuarian".
Ripuarians
The Rhineland Franks who lived near the stretch of the Rhine from roughly
The Ripuarian territory on both sides of the Rhine thus became a central part of Merovingian Austrasia. This stretched to include Roman Germania Inferior (later Germania Secunda), which included the original Salian and Ripuarian lands, and roughly equates to medieval Lower Lotharingia. It also included Gallia Belgica Prima (roughly medieval Upper Lotharingia), and further lands on the east bank of the Rhine.
Merovingian kingdom (481–751)
This section needs additional citations for verification. (July 2007) |
Gregory of Tours (Book II) reported that small Frankish kingdoms existed during the fifth century around
Clovis later defeated the son of Aegidius,
Clovis I divided his realm between his four sons, who united to defeat Burgundy in 534. Internecine feuding occurred during the reigns of the brothers
The Frankish realm was reunited in 613 by
Carolingian kingdom (751–987)
The unification achieved by the Merovingians ensured the continuation of what has become known as the Carolingian Renaissance. The Carolingian Empire was beset by internecine warfare, but the combination of Frankish rule and Roman Christianity ensured that it was fundamentally united. Frankish government and culture depended very much upon each ruler and his aims and so each region of the empire developed differently. Although a ruler's aims depended upon the political alliances of his family, the leading families of Francia shared the same basic beliefs and ideas of government, which had both Roman and Germanic roots.[citation needed]
The Frankish state consolidated its hold over the majority of western Europe by the end of the 8th century, developing into the Carolingian Empire. With the coronation of their ruler Charlemagne as Holy Roman Emperor by Pope Leo III in 800 AD, he and his successors were recognised as legitimate successors to the emperors of the Western Roman Empire. As such, the Carolingian Empire gradually came to be seen in the West as a continuation of the ancient Roman Empire. This empire would give rise to several successor states, including France, the Holy Roman Empire and Burgundy, though the Frankish identity remained most closely identified with France.
After the death of
Military
Participation in the Roman army
Germanic peoples, including those tribes in the Rhine delta that later became the Franks, are known to have served in the Roman army since the days of
After the invasion of Chlodio, the Roman armies at the Rhine border became a Frankish "franchise" and Franks were known to levy Roman-like troops that were supported by a Roman-like armour and weapons industry. This lasted at least until the days of the scholar Procopius (c. 500 – c. 565), more than a century after the demise of the Western Roman Empire, who wrote describing the former Arborychoi, having merged with the Franks, retaining their legionary organization in the style of their forefathers during Roman times.[35] The Franks under the Merovingians melded Germanic custom with Romanised organisation and several important tactical innovations. Before their conquest of Gaul, the Franks fought primarily as a tribe, unless they were part of a Roman military unit fighting in conjunction with other imperial units.
Military practices of the early Franks
The primary sources for Frankish military custom and armament are
Writing of 539, Procopius says:
At this time the Franks, hearing that both the Goths and Romans had suffered severely by the war ... forgetting for the moment their oaths and treaties ... (for this nation in matters of trust is the most treacherous in the world), they straightway gathered to the number of one hundred thousand under the leadership of Theudebert I and marched into Italy: they had a small body of cavalry about their leader, and these were the only ones armed with spears, while all the rest were foot soldiers having neither bows nor spears, but each man carried a sword and shield and one axe. Now the iron head of this weapon was thick and exceedingly sharp on both sides, while the wooden handle was very short. And they are accustomed always to throw these axes at a signal in the first charge and thus to shatter the shields of the enemy and kill the men.[36]
His contemporary, Agathias, who based his own writings upon the tropes laid down by Procopius, says:
The military equipment of this people [the Franks] is very simple ... They do not know the use of the
hand to hand combat.[37]
In the Strategikon, supposedly written by the emperor Maurice, or in his time, the Franks are lumped together with the Lombards under the heading of the "fair-haired" peoples.
If they are hard pressed in cavalry actions, they dismount at a single prearranged sign and line up on foot. Although only a few against many horsemen, they do not shrink from the fight. They are armed with shields, lances, and short swords slung from their shoulders. They prefer fighting on foot and rapid charges. [...] Either on horseback or on foot they are impetuous and un- disciplined in charging, as if they were the only people in the world who are not cowards.[38]
While the above quotations have been used as a statement of the military practices of the Frankish nation in the 6th century and have even been extrapolated to the entire period preceding
The evidence of Gregory and of the
Merovingian military
Composition and development
The Frankish military establishment incorporated many of the pre-existing Roman institutions in Gaul, especially during and after the conquests of Clovis I in the late 5th and early 6th centuries. Frankish military strategy revolved around the holding and taking of fortified centres (castra) and in general these centres were held by garrisons of milities and laeti, who were descendants of Roman soldiers with Germanic origin, granted a quasi-national status under Frankish law. These milites continued to be commanded by tribunes.[41] Throughout Gaul, the descendants of Roman soldiers continued to wear their uniforms and perform their ceremonial duties.
Immediately beneath the Frankish king in the military hierarchy were the leudes, his sworn followers, who were generally 'old soldiers' in service away from court.
The Frankish military was not composed solely of Franks and Gallo-Romans, but also contained Saxons, Alans, Taifals and Alemanni. After the conquest of Burgundy (534), the well-organised military institutions of that kingdom were integrated into the Frankish realm. Chief among these was the standing army under the command of the Patrician of Burgundy.
In the late 6th century, during the wars instigated by
Soon the local levy spread to Austrasia and the less Romanised regions of Gaul. On an intermediate level, the kings began calling up territorial levies from the regions of Austrasia (which did not have major cities of Roman origin). All the forms of the levy gradually disappeared, however, in the course of the 7th century after the reign of
Strategy, tactics and equipment
Merovingian armies used coats of mail, helmets, shields, lances, swords, bows and arrows and war horses. The armament of private armies resembled those of the Gallo-Roman potentiatores of the late Empire. A strong element of Alanic cavalry settled in Armorica influenced the fighting style of the Bretons down into the 12th century. Local urban levies could be reasonably well-armed and even mounted, but the more general levies were composed of pauperes and inferiores, who were mostly farmers by trade and carried ineffective weapons, such as farming implements. The peoples east of the Rhine – Franks, Saxons and even Wends – who were sometimes called upon to serve, wore rudimentary armour and carried weapons such as spears and axes. Few of these men were mounted.[citation needed]
Merovingian society had a militarised nature. The Franks called annual meetings every
Tactically, the Merovingians borrowed heavily from the Romans, especially regarding siege warfare. Their battle tactics were highly flexible and were designed to meet the specific circumstances of a battle. The tactic of subterfuge was employed endlessly. Cavalry formed a large segment of an army [
Culture
Language
In a modern
The Frankish language has not been directly attested, apart from a very small number of
Although the Franks would eventually conquer all of
The Germanic tribes who were called Franks in
Art and architecture
Early Frankish art and architecture belongs to a phase known as
Jewelry (such as brooches), weapons (including swords with decorative hilts) and clothing (such as capes and sandals) have been found in a number of grave sites. The grave of Queen
The objects produced by the main centres of the Carolingian Renaissance, which represent a transformation from that of the earlier period, have survived in far greater quantity. The arts were lavishly funded and encouraged by Charlemagne, using imported artists where necessary, and Carolingian developments were decisive for the future course of
Religion
A sizeable portion of the Frankish aristocracy quickly followed Clovis in converting to Christianity (the Frankish church of the Merovingians). The conversion of all under Frankish rule required a considerable amount of time and effort.
Paganism
Echoes of
Frankish paganism has been observed in the burial site of Childeric I, where the king's body was found covered in a cloth decorated with numerous bees. There is a likely connection with the bees to the traditional Frankish weapon, the angon (meaning "sting"), from its distinctive spearhead. It is possible that the fleur-de-lis is derived from the angon.
Christianity
Some Franks, like the 4th century usurper
Although many of the Frankish aristocracy quickly followed Clovis in converting to Christianity, the conversion of all his subjects was only achieved after considerable effort and, in some regions, a period of over two centuries.[59] The Chronicle of St. Denis relates that, following Clovis' conversion, a number of pagans who were unhappy with this turn of events rallied around Ragnachar, who had played an important role in Clovis' initial rise to power. Although the text remains unclear as to the precise pretext, Clovis had Ragnachar executed.[60] Remaining pockets of resistance were overcome region by region, primarily due to the work of an expanding network of monasteries.[61]
The Merovingian Church was shaped by both internal and external forces. It had to come to terms with an established Gallo-Roman hierarchy that resisted changes to its culture, Christianise pagan sensibilities and suppress their expression, provide a new theological basis for Merovingian forms of kingship deeply rooted in pagan Germanic tradition and accommodate Irish and Anglo-Saxon missionary activities and papal requirements.[62] The Carolingian reformation of monasticism and church-state relations was the culmination of the Frankish Church.
The increasingly wealthy Merovingian elite endowed many monasteries, including that of the Irish missionary
Laws
As with other Germanic peoples, the laws of the Franks were memorised by "rachimburgs", who were analogous to the
Crusaders and other Western Europeans as "Franks"
The term Frank has been used by many of the Eastern Orthodox and Muslim neighbours of medieval Latin Christendom (and beyond, such as in Asia) as a general synonym for a European from Western and Central Europe, areas that followed the Latin rites of Christianity under the authority of the Pope in Rome.[67] Another term with similar use was Latins.
Christians following the Latin rites in the eastern Mediterranean in this period were called Franks or Latins, regardless of their country of origin, whereas the words
The Mediterranean Lingua Franca (or "Frankish language") was a pidgin first spoken by 11th century European Christians and Muslims in Mediterranean ports that remained in use until the 19th century.
The term
The Chinese called the Portuguese Folangji 佛郎機 ("Franks") in the 1520s at the
During the reign of Chingtih (Zhengde) (1506), foreigners from the west called Fah-lan-ki (or Franks), who said they had
Bogue, and by their tremendously loud guns shook the place far and near. This was reported at court, and an order returned to drive them away immediately, and stop the trade.— Samuel Wells Williams, The Middle Kingdom: A Survey of the Geography, Government, Education, Social Life, Arts, Religion, &c. of the Chinese Empire and Its Inhabitants, 2 vol. (Wiley & Putnam, 1848).
Examples of derived words include:
- Frangos (Φράγκος) in Greek
- Frëng in Albanian
- Frenk in Turkish
- Firəng in Azerbaijani[70] (derived from Persian)
- al-Faranj, Afranj and Firinjīyah in Arabic[71]
- Farang (فرنگ), Farangī (فرنگی) in Persian, also the toponym Frangistan (فرنگستان)
- Faranji in Tajik.[72]
- Ferengi or Faranji in some Turkic languages
- Fereng (ፈረንጅ) in Amharic in Ethiopia, Farangi in Tigrinya, and derivative forms in other languages of the Horn of Africa, refers to white people or any white (European stock) person
- Feringhi or Firang in Urdu(derived from Persian)
- Phirangee in some other Indian languages
- Parangiar in Tamil
- Parangi in Malayalam; in Sinhala, the word refers specifically to Portuguese people
- Bayingyi (ဘရင်ဂျီ) in Burmese[73]
- Barang in Khmer
- Feringgi in Malay
- Folangji[74] or Fah-lan-ki (佛郎機) and Fulang[75] in Chinese
- Farang (ฝรั่ง) in Thai.
- Pirang ("blonde"), Perangai ("temperament/al") in Bahasa Indonesia
In the Thai usage, the word can refer to any European person. When the presence of
Some linguists (among them Drs. Jan Tent and Paul Geraghty) have suggested that the Samoan and generic Polynesian term for Europeans, Palagi (pronounced Puh-LANG-ee) or Papalagi, might also be cognate, possibly a loan term gathered by early contact between Pacific islanders and Malays.[77]
See also
- Germanic Christianity
- List of Frankish kings
- List of Frankish queens
- Name of France
- List of Germanic peoples
- Frankokratia
References
- ^ "Frank | People, Definition, & Maps". Britannica. Retrieved 2023-08-12.
- ISBN 978-0-88402-200-8.
- ISBN 978-0-495-91310-8.
- ISBN 978-1-85285-105-7.
- ^ Perry 1857, p. 42.
- ^ Examples: "frank". American Heritage Dictionary. "frank". Webster's Third New International Dictionary. And so on.
- ^ Robert K. Barnhart, ed. Barnhart Dictionary of Etymology (Bronx, NY: H. W. Wilson, 1988), 406.
- ^ Murray, Alexander Callander (2000). From Roman to Merovingian Gaul: A Reader. Broadview Press. p. 1.
The etymology of 'Franci' is uncertain ('the fierce ones' is the favourite explanation), but the name is undoubtedly of Germanic origin.
- ^ Panegyric on Constantine, xi.
- ^ Howorth 1884, p. 217.
- ^ Perry 1857, p. 43.
- ^ James 1988, p. 187.
- ISBN 978-0-670-02098-0.
- ^ a b Geary 1988, p. 77.
- ^ Geary 1988, pp. 77–78.
- ^ Krusch, Bruno (ed.) Liber Historicae Francorum. Mon. Germ. Hist., Script. Rer. Meroving. II, 215-238, Hanover, 1888. See also fr:Liber Historiae Francorum
- ^ Dörler 2013, pp. 25–32.
- ^ Liber Historiae Francorum.
- ^ Williams, 50–51.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 7.
- ^ MacGillivray Nicol, Donald; Matthews, J.F. "Constantine I". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 10 November 2017.
- ^ Howorth 1884, pp. 215–216
- ISBN 9789077922736.
- ^ As the 6th Gallicana is only known from this work, its existence is sometimes questioned along with the genuineness of the work; the question remains unanswered, however: Lendering, Jona. "Legio VI Gallicana". Livius.org. Archived from the original on 2012-10-14. Retrieved 2020-03-26.
- ^ Howorth 1884, p. 213.
- ^ Res Gestae, XVII.8.
- ^ The Latin, petit primos omnium Francos, eos videlicet quos consuetudo Salios appellavit is slightly ambiguous, resulting in an interpretation "first of all he proceeded against the Franks ..." with "first" presented improperly as an adjective instead of an adverb. As it stands, the Salians are the first Franks of all; if an adverb is intended, the Franks are they who are the Salians.
- Previté-Orton. The Shorter Cambridge Medieval History, vol. I. pp. 51–52.
- ^ Pfister 1911, p. 296.
- ^ Gregory of Tours was apparently skeptical of Childeric's connection to Chlodio, and only says that some say there was such a connection. Concerning Belgica Secunda, which Chlodio had conquered first for the Franks, Bishop Remigius, the leader of the church in the same province, stated in a letter to Childeric's son Clovis that "Great news has reached us that you have taken up the administration of Belgica Secunda. It is no surprise that you have begun to be as your parents ever were." (Epistolae Austriacae, translated by AC Murray, and quoted in Murray's "From Roman to Merovingian Gaul" p. 260). This is normally interpreted to mean that Childeric also had this administration. (See for example Wood "The Merovingian Kingdoms" p. 41.) Both the passage of Gregory and the letter of Remigius note the nobility of Clovis's mother when discussing his connection to this area.
- ^ Paragraph 191.
- ^ Nonn "Die Franken", p. 85: "Heute dürfte feststehen, dass es sich dabei um römische Einheiten handelt; die in der Gallia riparensis, einem Militärbezirk im Rhônegebiet, stationiert waren, der in der Notitia dignitatum bezeugt ist."
- ^ Halsall (2007, p. 267)
- ^ James (1988, p. 70)
- ISBN 9781107032330.
- ^ Procopius HW, VI, xxv, 1ff, quoted in Bachrach (1970), 436.
- ^ Agathias, Hist., II, 5, quoted in Bachrach (1970), 436–437.
- ^ Maurice's Strategikon. Handbook Of Byzantine Military Strategy. Translated by Dennis, George T. p. 119.
- ^ a b James, Edward, The Franks. Oxford; Blackwell 1988, p. 211
- ^ Bachrach (1970), 440.
- ISBN 9780816657001.
- ^ Halsall, Guy. Warfare and Society in the Barbarian West, 450–900 (London: Routledge, 2003), p. 48
- ^ Halsall, pp. 48–49
- ^ Halsall, p. 43
- ^ Rheinischer Fächer – Karte des Landschaftsverband Rheinland "LVR Alltagskultur im Rheinland". Archived from the original on February 15, 2009. Retrieved October 23, 2017.
- ISBN 9042015799, 9789042015791
- ISBN 90-5797-071-6.
- ^ a b "Romance languages | Description, Origin, Characteristics, Map, & Facts". Encyclopedia Britannica. 21 July 2023.
- ^ Noske 2007, p. 1.
- ISBN 0-8196-0191-8
- ^ R.L. Stockman: Low German, University of Michigan, 1998, p.46.
- ^ K. Reynolds Brown: Guide to Provincial Roman and Barbarian Metalwork and Jewelry in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1981, p.10.
- ^ H. Schutz: Tools, Weapons and Ornaments: Germanic Material Culture in Pre-Carolingian Central Europe, 400-750. BRILL, 2001, p.42.
- ISBN 0-19-921060-8
- ^ Eduard Syndicus; Early Christian Art; pp. 164–174; Burns & Oates, London, 1962
- ^ Schutz, 152.
- ^ Gregory of Tours, in his History of the Franks, relates: "Now this people seems to have always been addicted to heathen worship, and they did not know God, but made themselves images of the woods and the waters, of birds and beasts and of the other elements as well. They were wont to worship these as God and to offer sacrifice to them." (Gregory of Tours, History of the Franks, Book I.10 Archived 2014-08-14 at the Wayback Machine)
- ^ Gregory of Tours. "Book II, 31". History of the Franks. Archived from the original on 2014-08-14. Retrieved 2007-07-20.
- ISBN 3-8062-1535-9; pp. 441–446
- ^ The Chronicle of St. Denis, I.18–19, 23 Archived 2009-11-25 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Lorenz (2001:442)
- ^ J.M. Wallace-Hadrill covers these areas in The Frankish Church (Oxford History of the Christian Church; Oxford:Clarendon Press) 1983.
- ^ Michel Rouche, 435–436.
- ^ Michel Rouch, 421.
- ^ Michel Rouche, 421–422.
- ^ Michel Rouche, 422–423
- ^ König, Daniel G., Arabic-Islamic Views of the Latin West. Tracing the Emergence of Medieval Western Europe, Oxford: OUP, 2015, chap. 6, p. 289-230.[page needed]
- ^ Igor de Rachewiltz – Turks in China under the Mongols, in: China Among Equals: The Middle Kingdom and its Neighbors, 10th–14th Centuries, p. 281
- ^ Nandini Das - Courting India, p. 107
- ^ "FİRƏNG". Azərbaycan dilinin izahlı lüğəti [Explanatory dictionary of the Azerbaijani language] (in Azerbaijani). Archived from the original on 15 August 2020. Retrieved 15 August 2020 – via Obastan.
Danışıq dilində "fransız" mənasında işlədilir.
- ^ Rashid al-din Fazl Allâh, quoted in Karl Jahn (ed.) Histoire Universelle de Rasid al-Din Fadl Allah Abul=Khair: I. Histoire des Francs (Texte Persan avec traduction et annotations), Leiden, E. J. Brill, 1951. (Source: M. Ashtiany)
- ISBN 978-0-8108-6061-2.
- ISBN 1-881265-47-1.
- ISBN 978-0-674-00249-4.
- ISBN 978-1-107-01868-6.
- ^ Batya Shimony (2011) On “Holocaust Envy” in Mizrahi Literature, Dapim:Studies on the Holocaust, 25:1, 239-271, DOI: 10.1080/23256249.2011.10744411. Page 241: "Frenk [a pejorative slang term for Mizrahi]"
- ^ Tent, J., and Geraghty, P., (2001) "Exploding sky or exploded myth? The origin of Papalagi", Journal of the Polynesian Society, 110, 2: pp. 171–214.
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- Fredegarius; John Michael Wallace-Hadrill (1981) [1960]. Fredegarii chronicorum liber quartus cum continuationibus (in Latin and English). Greenwood Press.
- Liber Historiae Francorum. Translated by Bachrach, Bernard S. Coronado Press. 1973.
- Woodruff, Jane Ellen; Fredegar(1987). The Historia Epitomata (third book) of the Chronicle of Fredegar: an annotated translation and historical analysis of interpolated material. Thesis (Ph.D.). University of Nebraska.
- Gregory of Tours
- Gregory of Tours. "Libri Historiarum". The Classics Page: The Latin Library (in Latin). thelatinlibrary.com.
- Gregory of Tours (1997) [1916]. Halsall, Paul (ed.). History of the Franks: Books I–X (Extended Selections). Translated by Ernst Brehaut. Columbia University Press; Fordham University. Archived from the original on 2014-08-14. Retrieved 2007-07-20.
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- Marcellinus, Ammianus (2007) [1862]. Roman History. Translated by Roger Pearse. Bohn; tertullian.org.
- Procopius
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- Nixon, C. E. V. and Rodgers, Barbara. In Praise of Later Roman Emperors. Berkeley, 1994.
- Nonn, Ulrich (2010). Die Franken.
- Noske, Roland (2007). "Autonomous typological prosodic evolution versus the Germanic superstrate in diachronic French phonology". In Aboh, Enoch; van der Linden, Elisabeth; Quer, Josep; et al. (eds.). Romance Languages and Linguistic Theory (PDF). Amsterdam; Philadelphia: Benjamins. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-03-03. Retrieved 2011-12-30.
- Perry, Walter Copland (1857). The Franks, from Their First Appearance in History to the Death of King Pepin. Longman, Brown, Green, Longmans, and Roberts.
- Pfister, M. Christian (1911). "(B) The Franks Before Clovis". In Bury, J.B. (ed.). The Cambridge Medieval History. Vol. I: The Christian Roman Empire and the Foundation of the Teutonic Kingdoms. Cambridge University Press.
- Schutz, Herbert. The Germanic Realms in Pre-Carolingian Central Europe, 400–750. American University Studies, Series IX: History, Vol. 196. New York: Peter Lang, 2000.
- Wallace-Hadrill, J. M.The Long-Haired Kings. London: Butler & Tanner Ltd, 1962.
- Wallace-Hadrill, J. M.The Barbarian West. London: Hutchinson, 1970.
Further reading
- ISBN 9780195187922. Retrieved January 26, 2020.
- Mann, Chris (2004). "Franks". In ISBN 9780191727467. Retrieved January 26, 2020.
External links
- Åhlfeldt, Johan (2010). "Regnum Francorum Online – interactive maps and sources of early medieval Europe 614–840". Archived from the original on 2007-10-11.
- Kurth, G. (1909). "The Franks". The Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
- Martinsson, Örjan. "The Frankish Kingdom". Historical Atlas. Retrieved 5 December 2011.
- Nelson, Lynn Harry (2001). "The Rise of the Franks, 330–751". Lectures in Medieval History. vlib.us.
- "The Franks". International World History Project. 2001. Archived from the original on 2018-09-12. Retrieved 2011-12-05.