Franz Josef Land

Coordinates: 81°N 55°E / 81°N 55°E / 81; 55
Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
This article is about the archipelago in Arctic Russia. For the Albanian island, see Franc Jozeph Island.
Franz Josef Land
Земля Франца-Иосифа (Russian)
Map of Franz Josef Land
Location of Franz Josef Land
Geography
LocationArctic Ocean
Coordinates81°N 55°E / 81°N 55°E / 81; 55
Total islands192
Area16,134 km2 (6,229 sq mi)
Highest elevation670 m (2200 ft)
Highest pointWilczek Land
Administration
Federal subjectArkhangelsk Oblast
Demographics
Population2 (permanent) (2023)

Franz Josef Land[a] (Russian: Земля́ Фра́нца-Ио́сифа, romanized: Zemlya Frantsa-Iosifa; Norwegian: Fridtjof Nansen Land) is a Russian archipelago in the Arctic Ocean. It is inhabited only by military personnel.[1] It constitutes the northernmost part of Arkhangelsk Oblast and consists of 192 islands, which cover an area of 16,134 square kilometers (6,229 sq mi), stretching 375 kilometers (233 mi) from east to west and 234 kilometers (145 mi) from north to south. The islands are categorized in three groups (western, central, and eastern) separated by the British Channel and the Austrian Strait. The central group is further divided into a northern and southern section by the Markham Sound. The largest island is Prince George Land, which measures 2,741 square kilometers (1,058 sq mi), followed by Wilczek Land, Graham Bell Island and Alexandra Land.

Approximately 85% of the archipelago is

above mean sea level
.

The archipelago was first spotted by the Norwegian sailors

Franz Joseph I
.

In 1926, the

Kingdom of Norway rejected the claim and several private expeditions were sent to the islands. With the Cold War, the islands became off limits for foreigners and two military airfields were built. The islands have been a nature sanctuary since 1994 and became part of the Russian Arctic National Park
in 2012.

History

Main article: History of Franz Josef Land
Austro-Hungarian North Pole Expedition

There are two candidates for the discovery of Franz Josef Land. The first was the Norwegian sealing vessel Spidsbergen, with captain Nils Fredrik Rønnbeck and harpooner Johan Petter Aidijärvi. They sailed northeast from Svalbard in 1865 searching for suitable sealing sites, and they found land that was most likely Franz Josef Land. The account is believed to be factual, but an announcement of the discovery was never made, and their sighting therefore remained unknown to subsequent explorers. It was at the time common to keep newly discovered areas secret, as their discovery was aimed at exploiting them for sealing and whaling, and exposure would cause competitors to flock to the site.[2] Russian scientist N. G. Schilling proposed in 1865 that the ice conditions in the Barents Sea could only be explained if there was another land mass in the area, but he never received funding for an expedition.[3]

The

Franz Joseph I (1830–1916), Emperor of Austria.[7] The expedition contributed significantly to the mapping and exploration of the islands. The next expedition to spot the archipelago was the Dutch Expedition for the Exploration of the Barents Sea, on board the schooner Willem Barents. Constrained by the ice, they never reached land.[8]

Polar exploration

Cape Flora, and Eira sank on 21 August. They built a cottage and stayed the winter,[10] to be rescued by the British vessels Kara and Hope the following summer.[11] These early expeditions concentrated their explorations on the southern and central parts of the archipelago.[12]

Two men shake hands in the midst of a snowfield, with a dog sitting nearby. Dark hills are shown in the background.
The Nansen–Jackson meeting at Cape Flora, 17 June 1896 (a posed photograph taken hours after the initial meeting)

Cape Flora in the spring of 1896, Nansen stumbled upon Frederick George Jackson, who was able to transport him back to Norway.[15] Nansen and Jackson explored the northern, eastern, and western portions of the islands.[12]
Once the basic geography of Franz Josef Land had become apparent, expeditions shifted to using the archipelago as a basis to reach the North Pole. The first such attempt was conducted by the
Stella Polare.[18] They stayed the winter,[19] and in February and again in March 1900 set out towards the pole, but failed to get far.[20]

The Stella Polare was trapped and threatened to sink. The crew were obliged to land with the utmost haste and to secure materials for building a dwelling.

Evelyn Baldwin, sponsored by William Ziegler, organized the Ziegler Polar Expedition of 1901. Setting up a base on Alger Island, he stayed the winter exploring the area, but failed to press northwards. The expedition was largely regarded as an utter failure by the exploration and scientific community, which cited the lack of proper management. Unhappy with the outcome, Ziegler organized a new expedition, for which he appointed Anthony Fiala, second-in-command in the first expedition, as leader.[21] It arrived in 1903 and spent the winter. Their ship, America, was crushed beyond repair in December and disappeared in January. Still, they made two attempts towards the pole, both of which were quickly abandoned.[22] They were forced to stay another year, making yet another unsuccessful attempt at the pole, before being evacuated in 1905 by the Terra Nova.[23]

The first Russian expedition was carried out in 1901, when the icebreaker Yermak traveled to the islands.[24] The next expedition, led by hydrologist Georgy Sedov, embarked in 1912 but did not reach the archipelago until the following year because of ice. Among its scientific contributions were the first snow measurements of the archipelago, and the determination that changes of the magnetic field occur in cycles of fifteen years.[25] It also conducted topographical surveys of the surrounding area.[26] Scurvy set in during the second winter, killing a machinist. Despite lacking prior experience or sufficient provisions, Sedov insisted on pressing forward with a march to the pole. His condition deteriorated and he died on 6 March.[27]

America anchored at Tepliz Bay

Hertha was sent to explore the area, and its captain, I. I. Islyamov hoisted a

First World War and Russian fears of the Central Powers establishing themselves there. The world's first Arctic flight took place in August 1914, when Polish aviator (one of the first pilots of the Russian Navy) Jan Nagórski overflew Franz Josef Land in search of Sedov's group. Andromeda set out for the same purpose; while failing to locate them, the crew were able to finally determine the non-existence of Peterman Land and King Oscar Land, suspected lands north of the islands.[28]

The Soviet Union

Soviet expeditions were sent almost yearly from 1923.

Italia.[29]

Norway attempted both a diplomatic solution and a

Second World War, these were the last Western expeditions to Franz Josef Land until 1990.[33]

Soviet activities grew rapidly following the

airstrip was then constructed on a glacier on the island, and by 1937 the winter population hit 300.[35]

Activity dwindled during the

Second World War and only a small group of men were kept at Rudolf Island, remaining unsupplied throughout the war.[36] They never discovered Nazi Germany's establishment of a weather station, named Schatzgräber, on Alexandra Land as part of the North Atlantic weather war. The German station was evacuated in 1944 after the men were struck by trichinosis from eating polar bear meat.[37] Apparent physical evidence of the base was discovered in 2016.[38]

The

intercontinental ballistic missiles, the Soviet Union changed its military strategy in 1956, abolishing the strategic need for an airbase on the archipelago. The International Geophysical Year of 1957 and 1958 gave a new rise to the scientific interest in the archipelago and an airstrip was built on Heiss Island in 1956. The following year the geophysical Ernst Krenkel Observatory was established there.[36] Activity at Tikhaya Bay was closed in 1959.[39]

Because of the islands' military significance, the Soviet Union closed off the area to foreign researchers, although Soviet researchers carried out various expeditions, including in geophysics, studies of the ionosphere, marine biology, botany, ornithology, and glaciology.[40] The Soviet Union opened up the archipelago for international activities from 1990, with foreigners having fairly straightforward access.[41]

Recent history

Nagurskoye is Russia's northernmost military base

As part of the opening up of Franz Josef Land, the Institute of Geography in Moscow, Stockholm University and Umeå University (Sweden) conducted expeditions to Alexandra Land in August 1990 and August 1991, studying climate- and glacial history by radiocarbon dating raised beaches and antlers from extinct caribou.[42][43][44] The work was conducted from a small research base southwest of Nagurskoye, built in 1989. Also in 1990, a collaboration between the Academy of Sciences, the Norwegian Polar Institute and the Polish Academy of Sciences resulted in the first of several archaeological expeditions organized by the Institute of Culture in Moscow.[41] The military base on Graham Bell Island was abandoned in the early 1990s. The military presence at Nagurskoye was reduced to that of a border post, and the number of people stationed at Krenkel Observatory was reduced from 70 to 12.[45] The archipelago and the surrounding waters were declared a nature reserve in April 1994. The opening of the archipelago also saw the introduction of tourism, most of which takes place on Russian-operated icebreakers.[46] In 2011, in a move to better accommodate tourism in the archipelago, the Russian Arctic National Park was expanded to include Franz Josef Land.[47] However, in August 2019, Russia abruptly withdrew its approval for a Norwegian cruise ship to visit the islands.[48]

In 2012, the

Nagurskoye. It can maintain 150 soldiers for 18 months and has an area of 14,000 square meters.[50] The upgraded airbase is considered a threat to the U.S. military installation at Thule, Greenland.[51]

In 2017, Russian president Vladimir Putin visited the archipelago.[52]

In August 2019, a geographic expedition by

Russian Northern Fleet discovered several new islands in the archipelago. They were previously buried under Vylki Glacier until part of it melted.[53]

In April 2020, the archipelago was used by the

paradrop from the lower border of the Arctic stratosphere. The crews of Il-76 aircraft practiced at the northernmost airfield of the country on the island of Franz Josef Land. Not only did the paratroopers endure the partial oxygen of the stratosphere common under the HALO technique; they encountered deep freeze conditions mitigated by military tested oxygen tanks and uniforms. Challenges to the Arctic mission included undirected terrain, in the absence of ground navigation systems. During the end of the mission, the paratroopers spent a day during which they conducted classes on survival in Arctic conditions and built shelters from snow.[54][55][56]

Geography

Main article: Geography of Franz Josef Land
Cape Brice, Ziegler Island, Franz Josef Land

The archipelago constitutes the northernmost part of Russia's Arkhangelsk Oblast, located between 79°46′ and 81°52′ north and 44°52′ and 62°25′ east. It is situated 360 kilometers (220 mi) north of

varying definitions of the Asia–Europe border, and is therefore variously defined as part of Asia or of Europe. Cape Flighely, situated at 81°50′ north, is the northernmost point in Eurasia and the Eastern Hemisphere,[57] and of either Europe or Asia, depending on the continental definition.[citation needed] It is the third-closest landmass to the North Pole.[58]

Bell Island

The archipelago comprises 191 uninhabited islands with a combined area of 16,134 square kilometers (6,229 sq mi). These stretch 375 kilometers (233 mi) from east to west and 234 kilometers (145 mi) from north to south.[57] One can categorize the islands into three groups, a western, central and eastern, separated by the British Channel and the Austrian Strait. The central group is further divided into a northern and southern section by the Markham Strait. Graham Bell Island is separated from the eastern group by the Severo–Vostochnyi Strait.[59] There are two named island clusters: Zichy Land north of Markham Sound; and Belaya Zemlya to the extreme northeast.[citation needed] The straits are narrow, between several hundred meters to 3 kilometers (2 mi) wide. They reach depths of 500 to 600 meters (1,600 to 2,000 ft), 150 to 300 meters (500 to 1,000 ft) below the shelf of the Barents Sea.[59]

The largest island is Prince George Land, which measures 2,741 square kilometers (1,058 sq mi). Three additional islands exceed 1,000 square kilometers (390 sq mi) in size: Wilczek Land, Graham Bell Island and Alexandra Land. Five more islands exceed 500 square kilometers (190 sq mi): Hall Island, Salisbury Island, McClintock Island, Jackson Island and Hooker Island. The smallest 135 islands constitute 0.4 percent of the archipelago's area.[57] The highest elevation is a peak on Wilczek Land, which rises 670 meters (2,200 ft) above mean sea level. Victoria Island, located 170 kilometers (110 mi) to the west of Alexandra Land, is administratively part of the archipelago, but the island is not geographically part of the island group and is closer to Svalbard, located 60 kilometers (37 mi) from Kvitøya.[60]

Geology

Cape Tegetthoff on Hall Island

Geologically the archipelago is located on the northern edge of the Barents Sea Platform, within an area where

units separated by regional erosion surfaces. The Upper Paleozoic unit is poorly exposed and was created by folding during the Caledonian period. The Lower Mesozoic unit, consisting of coastal and marine sediments from the Upper Triassic period, is present on most islands and on the bottom of the straits and consists of limestones, shales, sandstones and conglomerate
.

The Upper Mesozoic unit dominates in the southern and western parts, consisting of massive

dolerite sheets and dykes in the Upper Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous periods.[62] The land is rising by 2.5 to 3.0 millimeters (0.098 to 0.118 in) per year, due to the melting of the Barents Sea Ice Sheet c. 10,000 years ago.[63]

Hydrology

Franz Josef Land is dominated by glaciation, which covers an area of 13,735 square kilometers (5,303 sq mi), or 85 percent of the archipelago.

eustatic rise in sea level should it melt.[64] Large ice-free areas are only found on the largest islands, such as the 499.8-square-kilometer (193.0 sq mi) Armitage Peninsula of George Land, the 493.7-square-kilometer (190.6 sq mi) Kholmistyi Peninsula of Graham Bell Island, the 270-square-kilometer (100 sq mi) Central'naya Susha of Alexandra Land, the 162.6-square-kilometer (62.8 sq mi) Ganza Point of Wilczek Land and the 84.2-square-kilometer (32.5 sq mi) Heyes Island. Most of the smaller islands are unglaciated.[57]

Heiss Island
in September 2007.

Streams only form during the runoff period from May through early September. Permafrost causes most of the runoff to take place on the surface, with streams only forming on the largest islands. The longest river is 19 kilometers (12 mi) long and forms on George Land, while there are several streams on Alexandra Land, the longest being 8.4 kilometers (5.2 mi).[65] There are about one thousand lakes in the archipelago, the majority of which are located on Alexandra Land and George Land. Most lakes are located in depressions caused by glacial erosion, in addition to a smaller number of lagoon lakes. Their sizes vary from 2 square kilometers (0.77 sq mi) to 0.4 hectares (0.99 acres). Most are only 2 meters (6 ft 7 in) deep, with the deepest measured at 10 meters (33 ft).[66]

The sea

Icebergs are common year-round.[69]

Climate

Satellite image of Franz Josef Land from August 2011

Franz Josef Land is in a transition zone between an ice cap climate (EF) and a tundra climate (ET), technically falling into the latter because July and August average above freezing, nevertheless, low temperatures remain below freezing year round. The main forces influencing the climate are the glaciation and sea ice. At 81° north the archipelago experiences 141 annual days of midnight sun, from 12 April to 30 August. During the winter it experiences 128 days of polar night from 19 October to 23 February. Abundant cloud cover further cools the climate. The sea starts to freeze in late September and reaches its annual maximum in March, at which time ninety-five percent of the sea is ice-covered. The ice coverage starts to decrease in May and experiences major melting in June, with the minimum occurring in August or early September.[70]

During winter, high-pressure weather and clear skies cause radiation loss from the ground, sending temperatures down to −40 °C (−40 °F). During shifts the temperatures can change by 20 °C (36 °F) within hours. Coastal stations experience mean January temperatures of between −20 °C (−4 °F) and −30 °C (−22 °F), varying heavily from year to year depending on the degree of cycles in weather patterns. During summer the temperatures are a lot more even and average at between 0 °C (32 °F) and 3 °C (37 °F) at Hayes Island.

Canadian Arctic Archipelago.[73]

Climate data for
Heiss Island
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Record high °C (°F) 1.9
(35.4) 		0.0
(32.0) 		1.6
(34.9) 		0.7
(33.3) 		2.6
(36.7) 		8.0
(46.4) 		10.3
(50.5) 		8.4
(47.1) 		5.6
(42.1) 		3.8
(38.8) 		1.3
(34.3) 		1.7
(35.1) 		10.3
(50.5)
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) −19.2
(−2.6) 		−19.5
(−3.1) 		−19.4
(−2.9) 		−15.6
(3.9) 		−6.5
(20.3) 		0.1
(32.2) 		2.1
(35.8) 		1.4
(34.5) 		−1.2
(29.8) 		−8.1
(17.4) 		−13.9
(7.0) 		−18.4
(−1.1) 		−9.9
(14.2)
Daily mean °C (°F) −22.7
(−8.9) 		−23.1
(−9.6) 		−23
(−9) 		−18.7
(−1.7) 		−8.7
(16.3) 		−1.4
(29.5) 		0.7
(33.3) 		0.1
(32.2) 		−2.7
(27.1) 		−10.4
(13.3) 		−17.4
(0.7) 		−21.8
(−7.2) 		−12.4
(9.7)
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) −26.2
(−15.2) 		−26.5
(−15.7) 		−26.5
(−15.7) 		−21.6
(−6.9) 		−10.8
(12.6) 		−2.8
(27.0) 		−0.3
(31.5) 		−1.0
(30.2) 		−4.2
(24.4) 		−12.9
(8.8) 		−20.3
(−4.5) 		−25.1
(−13.2) 		−14.9
(5.2)
Record low °C (°F) −42.1
(−43.8) 		−44.4
(−47.9) 		−43.5
(−46.3) 		−39.6
(−39.3) 		−27.7
(−17.9) 		−12.3
(9.9) 		−4.3
(24.3) 		−8.5
(16.7) 		−23.2
(−9.8) 		−32.3
(−26.1) 		−39.5
(−39.1) 		−41.5
(−42.7) 		−44.4
(−47.9)
Average precipitation mm (inches) 32
(1.3) 		31
(1.2) 		20
(0.8) 		15
(0.6) 		13
(0.5) 		10
(0.4) 		18
(0.7) 		22
(0.9) 		26
(1.0) 		21
(0.8) 		24
(0.9) 		27
(1.1) 		259
(10.2)
Average rainy days 0.1 0.1 0 0.1 0.5 3 12 12 6 0.5 0.1 0 34
Average snowy days 20 19 19 16 22 15 7 10 18 24 21 19 209
Average
relative humidity
(%) 		83 82 80 81 85 88 91 92 90 86 84 83 85
Source: pogoda.ru.net[74]

Nature

See also:
Heiss Island

The climate and permafrost limits soil development in the archipelago. Large areas are devoid of soil, with permafrost polygons being the most common site for soil to occur. The soil typically has incomplete

soil profiles and polygonal form with rich content of iron and is either neutral or slightly acidic. The brown upper humus layers have three percent organic matter, increasing to eight percent in the southernmost islands.[75] Arctic desert soils occur on the eastern group islands, while the areas near the edge of the glaciers have bog-like arctic soil.[76]

The flora varies between islands, based on the natural conditions. On some islands, vegetation is limited to lichen growing on stones.[77] Vegetation typically covers five to ten percent of the ground surface, with notable exceptions under bird colonies where it can reach one hundred percent. Vegetation varies with the altitude: up to 120 to 130 meters (390 to 430 ft) there is a belt of grass-moss arctic desert, then moss-lichen arctic desert to 175 to 200 meters (574 to 656 ft), then lichen arctic desert up to 250 to 315 meters (820 to 1,033 ft) and above lifeless snow desert, with occasional lichens on nunataks and snow algae on glacier surfaces.[78]

Northbrook Island

Trees, shrubs and tall plants cannot survive. About 150 species of

polar willow. Alopecurus magellanicus and Papaver dahlianum are the tallest plants, able to reach heights of 30 centimeters (12 in).[79]

More than one hundred

sublittoral zone (2 to 25 meters (6 ft 7 in to 82 ft 0 in)) is dominated by laminaria, most commonly Laminaria sachcharina, and red algae, such as Phycodrys rubens.[83]

Heiss Island

There are 33 species of

Arctic skua, glaucous gull, ivory gull, Arctic tern and snow bunting.[85] Some ivory gulls, little auks and Brünnich's guillemots opt to spend the winter on the islands.[86]

The polar bear population of Franz Josef Land lies within the Barents Sea subpopulation, which also includes polar bears inhabiting Svalbard and the western coast of Novaya Zemlya.[87] In 2004, the Barents Sea subpopulation was estimated at 2,650.[88] There is also a population of Arctic fox, which typically have their territories near seabird habitats.[89]

There are no caribou living on Franz Josef Land today. However, radiocarbon dating of shed antlers found on Alexandra Land in 1990 has shown that there was a population of caribou living on the island around 4000 to 2000 years ago.[44] It is likely that the population died out when the climate became colder.

Marine mammals

As a declared marine mammal sanctuary,[90] the area around the islands has a rich biodiversity of rare marine mammals.

Three species of seals habit the archipelago. Harp seal is the most common, although it breeds in the White Sea. Slightly less common is the bearded seal. Walruses were previously hunted, dramatically reducing the formerly abundant species.[91] They have been internationally protected since 1952 and their numbers have since been on the rise, with between one and three thousand walruses living in the archipelago. The population is common with Svalbard and northern Novaya Zemlya.

narwhales, with the archipelago being located on the northern edge of their summer range. Fin whales were recently confirmed to migrate into the waters.[92]

Critically endangered cetaceans

Occasionally there are sightings of bowhead whale.[93] The Russian Arctic stock of this species, ranging from Cape Farewell in Greenland and Svalbard/Spitsbergen areas to East Siberian Sea is considered to be the most endangered of all bowhead populations in the world. The waters around Franz Josef Land appear to be the most important place for this stock.[94][95]

Human activity

Polar Geophysical Observatory on Heiss Island

Tourism travel to the archipelago is severely limited. There is no infrastructure to support tourists and the only way to reach the islands is by icebreaker, typically operating out of Murmansk. In 2012 there were only eight successful landings on the islands. A contributing factor to the low utilization is the difficulty of obtaining permissions and frequent closing of the Kola Bay to accommodate military exercises. The most frequent service is a three-week North Pole tour with Russian nuclear-powered icebreaker 50 Let Pobedy, which stops by the islands en route.[96] The most popular destinations are areas with bird cliffs and walrus colonies, such as Cape Flora on Northbrook Island and Cape Rubini on Hooker Island, as well as historical remains such as Nansen's hut on Jackson Island.[97] Tourists are commonly landed by helicopter.[98] For purposes of amateur radio awards the islands count as a separate international "entity". Activity by radio operators has become less frequent, though it does occasionally occur.[99] Nagurskoye Air Base is located on the Northern part of Alexandra Land. It was extensively upgraded in the mid-2010s to support a greater military presence.[100]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Name variants: Frantz Iosef Land, Franz Joseph Land or Francis Joseph's Land

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  99. ^ Franz Josef Land May Become a Rare One
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Bibliography

External links
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