Fred Hoyle

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

Bondi–Hoyle–Lyttleton accretion
Spouse
Barbara Clark
(m. 1939)
[2]
Children
Awards
Scientific career
Fields
Paul C. W. Davies
Douglas Gough

Sir Fred Hoyle FRS (24 June 1915 – 20 August 2001)[1] was an English astronomer who formulated the theory of stellar nucleosynthesis and was one of the authors of the influential B2FH paper. He also held controversial stances on other scientific matters—in particular his rejection of the "Big Bang" theory (a term coined by him on BBC Radio) in favor of the "steady-state model", and his promotion of panspermia as the origin of life on Earth.[3][4][5] He spent most of his working life at St John's College, Cambridge and served as the founding director of the Institute of Theoretical Astronomy at Cambridge.

Hoyle also wrote science fiction novels, short stories and radio plays, co-created television serials, and co-authored twelve books with his son, Geoffrey Hoyle.

Biography

Early life

Hoyle was born near Bingley in Gilstead, West Riding of Yorkshire, England.[6] His father Ben Hoyle was a violinist and worked in the wool trade in Bradford, and served as a machine gunner in the First World War.[7] His mother, Mabel Pickard, had studied music at the Royal College of Music in London and later worked as a cinema pianist.[7] Hoyle was educated at Bingley Grammar School and read mathematics at Emmanuel College, Cambridge.[8] As a youth, he sang in the choir at the local Anglican church.[9][10]

In 1936, Hoyle shared the Mayhew Prize with George Stanley Rushbrooke.

Career

In late 1940, Hoyle left Cambridge to go to

Mount Palomar and, in Canada, the nuclear physics of plutonium implosion and explosion, noticed some similarity between the two and started thinking about supernova nucleosynthesis. He had an intuition at the time "I will make a name for myself if this works out" (he published his prescient and groundbreaking paper in 1954). He also formed a group at Cambridge exploring stellar nucleosynthesis in ordinary stars and was bothered by the paucity of stellar carbon production in existing models. He noticed that one existing process would be made a billion times more productive if the carbon-12 nucleus had a resonance at 7.7 MeV, but nuclear physicists at the time omitted such an observed value. On another trip, he visited the nuclear physics group at Caltech, spent a few months of sabbatical there and persuaded them against their scepticism to find the Hoyle state in carbon-12, from which a full theory of stellar nucleosynthesis was developed, co-authored by Hoyle and members of the Caltech group.[12]

A blue plaque at Bingley Grammar School commemorating Hoyle

In 1945, after the war ended, Hoyle returned to Cambridge University as a lecturer at St John's College, Cambridge (where he had been a Fellow since 1939).[13] Hoyle's Cambridge years, 1945–1973, saw him rise to the top of world astrophysics theory, on the basis of a startling originality of ideas covering a wide range of topics. In 1958, Hoyle was appointed Plumian Professor of Astronomy and Experimental Philosophy in Cambridge University. In 1967, he became the founding director of the Institute of Theoretical Astronomy (subsequently renamed the Institute of Astronomy, Cambridge), where his innovative leadership quickly led to this institution becoming one of the premier groups in the world for theoretical astrophysics. In 1971, he was invited to deliver the MacMillan Memorial Lecture to the Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders in Scotland. He chose the subject "Astronomical Instruments and their Construction".[14] Hoyle was knighted in 1972.

Although the occupant of two distinguished offices, by 1972 Hoyle had become unhappy with his life in Cambridge. A dispute over election to a professorial chair led to Hoyle resigning as Plumian professor in 1972. The following year he also resigned the directorship of the Institute. Explaining his actions, he later wrote: "I do not see any sense in continuing to skirmish on a battlefield where I can never hope to win. The Cambridge system is effectively designed to prevent one ever establishing a directed policy - key decisions can be upset by ill-informed and politically motivated committees. To be effective in this system one must for ever be watching one's colleagues, almost like a Robespierre spy system. If one does so, then of course little time is left for any real science."[15]

After leaving Cambridge, Hoyle wrote several popular science and science fiction books, as well as presenting lectures around the world, partly to provide a means of support. Hoyle was still a member of the joint policy committee (since 1967), during the planning stage for the 150-inch

Charles, Prince of Wales
.

Decline and death

After his resignation from Cambridge, Hoyle moved to the

Shipley Glen. He was located about 12 hours later by a party using search dogs. He was hospitalised for two months with a broken shoulder bone, and pneumonia and kidney problems, both resulting from hypothermia. Thereafter he entered a marked decline, suffering from memory and mental agility problems. In 2001, he suffered a series of strokes and died in Bournemouth
on 20 August of that year.

Views and contributions

Origin of nucleosynthesis

Hoyle authored the first two research papers ever published on synthesis of chemical elements heavier than helium by stellar nuclear reactions. The first of these

r process. So influential did the B2FH paper become that for the remainder of the twentieth century it became the default citation of almost all researchers wishing to cite an accepted origin for nucleosynthesis theory, and as a result, the path-breaking Hoyle 1954 paper fell into obscurity. Historical research in the 21st century [19][20] has brought Hoyle's 1954 paper back to scientific prominence. Those historical arguments were first presented to a gathering of nucleosynthesis experts attending a 2007 conference at Caltech organized after the deaths of both Fowler and Hoyle to celebrate the 50th anniversary of the publication of B2FH. Ironically the B2FH paper did not review Hoyle's 1954 supernova-shells attribution of the origin of elements between silicon and iron despite Hoyle's co-authorship of B2FH. Based on his many personal discussions with Hoyle [21] Donald D. Clayton has attributed this seemingly inexplicable oversight in B2FH to the lack of proofreading by Hoyle of the draft composed at Caltech in 1956 by G.R. Burbidge and E.M. Burbidge.[22]

The second of Hoyle's nucleosynthesis papers also introduced an interesting use of the anthropic principle, which was not then known by that name. In trying to work out the steps of stellar nucleosynthesis, Hoyle calculated that one particular nuclear reaction, the triple-alpha process, which generates carbon from helium, would require the carbon nucleus to have a very specific resonance energy and spin for it to work. The large amount of carbon in the universe, which makes it possible for carbon-based life-forms of any kind to exist, demonstrated to Hoyle that this nuclear reaction must work. Based on this notion, Hoyle therefore predicted the values of the energy, the nuclear spin and the parity of the compound state in the carbon nucleus formed by three alpha particles (helium nuclei), which was later borne out by experiment.[23]

This energy level, while needed to produce carbon in large quantities, was statistically very unlikely to fall where it does in the scheme of carbon energy levels. Hoyle later wrote:

Would you not say to yourself, "Some super-calculating intellect must have designed the properties of the carbon atom, otherwise the chance of my finding such an atom through the blind forces of nature would be utterly minuscule. A common sense interpretation of the facts suggests that a superintellect has monkeyed with physics, as well as with chemistry and biology, and that there are no blind forces worth speaking about in nature. The numbers one calculates from the facts seem to me so overwhelming as to put this conclusion almost beyond question."

— Fred Hoyle[24]

His co-worker

Nobel Prize for Physics in 1983 (with Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar), but Hoyle's original contribution was overlooked by the electors, and many were surprised that such a notable astronomer missed out.[25]
Fowler himself in an autobiographical sketch affirmed Hoyle's pioneering efforts:

The concept of nucleosynthesis in stars was first established by Hoyle in 1946. This provided a way to explain the existence of elements heavier than

dies". The new stars formed now start off with these heavier elements and even heavier elements are formed from them. Hoyle theorized that other rarer elements could be explained by supernovas, the giant explosions which occasionally occur throughout the universe, whose temperatures and pressures would be required to create such elements.

— William Fowler[26]

Rejection of the Big Bang

While having no argument with the

Steady State theory
. The theory tried to explain how the universe could be eternal and essentially unchanging while still having the galaxies we observe moving away from each other. The theory hinged on the creation of matter between galaxies over time, so that even though galaxies get further apart, new ones that develop between them fill the space they leave. The resulting universe is in a "steady state" in the same manner that a flowing river is—the individual water molecules are moving away but the overall river remains the same.

The theory was one alternative to the

BBC radio's Third Programme broadcast on 28 March 1949.[28] It was said by George Gamow and his opponents that Hoyle intended to be pejorative, and the script from which he read aloud was interpreted by his opponents to be "vain, one-sided, insulting, not worthy of the BBC".[29] Hoyle explicitly denied that he was being insulting and said it was just a striking image meant to emphasize the difference between the two theories for the radio audience.[30] In another BBC interview, he said, "The reason why scientists like the "Big Bang" is because they are overshadowed by the Book of Genesis. It is deep within the psyche of most scientists to believe in the first page of Genesis".[31]

Hoyle had a famously heated argument with Martin Ryle of the Cavendish Radio Astronomy Group about Hoyle's steady state theory, which somewhat restricted collaboration between the Cavendish group and the Cambridge Institute of Astronomy during the 1960s.[32]

Hoyle, unlike Gold and Bondi, offered an explanation for the appearance of new matter by postulating the existence of what he dubbed the "creation field", or just the "C-field", which had negative pressure in order to be consistent with the

cosmic inflation, but the C-field model acts much slower than the de Sitter inflation model.[33] They jointly argued that continuous creation was no more inexplicable than the appearance of the entire universe from nothing, although it had to be done on a regular basis. In the end, mounting observational evidence convinced most cosmologists that the steady-state model was incorrect and that the Big Bang theory agreed better with observations, although Hoyle continued to support and develop his theory. In 1993, in an attempt to explain some of the evidence against the steady-state theory, he presented a modified version called "quasi-steady state cosmology
" (QSS), but the theory is not widely accepted.

The evidence that resulted in the Big Bang's victory over the steady-state model included discovery of cosmic microwave background radiation in the 1960s, and the distribution of "young galaxies" and quasars throughout the Universe in the 1980s indicate a more consistent age estimate of the universe. Hoyle died in 2001 having never accepted the validity of the Big Bang theory.[34]

How, in the big-bang cosmology, is the microwave background explained? Despite what supporters of big-bang cosmology claim, it is not explained. The supposed explanation is nothing but an entry in the gardener's catalogue of hypothesis that constitutes the theory. Had observation given 27 Kelvins instead of 2.7 Kelvins for the temperature, then 27 kelvins would have been entered in the catalogue. Or 0.27 Kelvins. Or anything at all.

— Hoyle, 1994[35]

Theory of gravity

Together with

Mach's Principle
, which Einstein had tried but failed to incorporate in his theory. The Hoyle-Narlikar theory fails several tests, including consistency with the microwave background. It was motivated by their belief in the steady-state model of the universe.

Rejection of Earth-based abiogenesis

In his later years, Hoyle became a staunch critic of theories of

origin of life on Earth. With Chandra Wickramasinghe, Hoyle promoted the hypothesis that the first life on Earth began in space, spreading through the universe via panspermia, and that evolution on Earth is influenced by a steady influx of viruses arriving via comets. His belief that comets had a significant percentage of organic compounds was well ahead of his time, as the dominant views in the 1970s and 1980s were that comets largely consisted of water-ice, and the presence of organic compounds was then highly controversial. Wickramasinghe wrote in 2003: "In the highly polarized polemic between Darwinism and creationism, our position is unique. Although we do not align ourselves with either side, both sides treat us as opponents. Thus we are outsiders with an unusual perspective—and our suggestion for a way out of the crisis has not yet been considered."[36]

Hoyle and Wickramasinghe advanced several instances where they say outbreaks of illnesses on Earth are of extraterrestrial origins, including the

mad cow disease
. For the 1918 flu pandemic, they hypothesized that cometary dust brought the virus to Earth simultaneously at multiple locations—a view almost universally dismissed by experts on this pandemic. In 1982, Hoyle presented Evolution from Space for the Royal Institution's Omni Lecture. After considering what he thought of as a very remote possibility of Earth-based abiogenesis he concluded:

If one proceeds directly and straightforwardly in this matter, without being deflected by a fear of incurring the wrath of scientific opinion, one arrives at the conclusion that biomaterials with their amazing measure of order must be the outcome of intelligent design. No other possibility I have been able to think of...

— Fred Hoyle[37]

Published in his 1982/1984 books Evolution from Space (co-authored with Chandra Wickramasinghe), Hoyle calculated that the chance of obtaining the required set of enzymes for even the simplest living cell without panspermia was one in 1040,000. Since the number of atoms in the known universe is infinitesimally tiny by comparison (1080), he argued that Earth as life's place of origin could be ruled out. He claimed:

The notion that not only the biopolymer but the operating program of a living cell could be arrived at by chance in a primordial organic soup here on the Earth is evidently nonsense of a high order.

Though Hoyle declared himself an atheist,[38] this apparent suggestion of a guiding hand led him to the conclusion that "a superintellect has monkeyed with physics, as well as with chemistry and biology, and ... there are no blind forces worth speaking about in nature."[39] He would go on to compare the random emergence of even the simplest cell without panspermia to the likelihood that "a tornado sweeping through a junk-yard might assemble a Boeing 747 from the materials therein" and to compare the chance of obtaining even a single functioning protein by chance combination of amino acids to a solar system full of blind men solving Rubik's Cubes simultaneously.[40] This is known as "the junkyard tornado",[41] or "Hoyle's Fallacy". Those who advocate the intelligent design (ID) philosophy sometimes cite Hoyle's work in this area to support the claim that the universe was fine tuned to allow intelligent life to be possible.

Other opinions

While Hoyle was well-regarded for his works on nucleosynthesis and science popularization, he held positions on a wide range of scientific issues that were in direct opposition to the prevailing theories of the scientific community.[3] Paul Davies describes how he "loved his maverick personality and contempt for orthodoxy", quoting Hoyle as saying "I don't care what they think" about his theories on discrepant redshift, and "it is better to be interesting and wrong than boring and right".[42]

Hoyle often expressed anger against the labyrinthine and petty politics at Cambridge and frequently feuded with members and institutions of all levels of the British astronomy community, leading to his resignation from Cambridge in September 1971 over the way he thought Donald Lynden-Bell was chosen to replace retiring professor Roderick Oliver Redman behind his back.[43] According to biographer Simon Mitton, Hoyle was crestfallen because he felt that his colleagues at Cambridge were unsupportive.[3]

In addition to his views on

steady state theory
and panspermia, Hoyle also supported the following controversial hypotheses and speculations:

  • The correlation of
    sunspot cycle, with epidemics occurring at the minimum of the cycle. The idea was that flu contagion was scattered in the interstellar medium and reached Earth only when the solar wind had minimum power.[44][45][46][47]
  • Two fossil Archaeopteryx were man-made fakes.[48]
  • The theory of abiogenic petroleum, held by Hoyle and by Thomas Gold, where natural hydrocarbons (oil and natural gas) are explained as the result of deep carbon deposits, instead of fossilized organic material. This theory is dismissed by the mainstream petroleum geochemistry community.[49]
  • In his 1977 book On Stonehenge, Hoyle supported Gerald Hawkins's proposal that the fifty-six Aubrey holes at Stonehenge were used as a system for neolithic Britons to predict eclipses, using them in the daily positioning of marker stones. Using the Aubrey holes for predicting lunar eclipses was originally proposed by Gerald Hawkins in his book of the subject Stonehenge Decoded (1965).

Nobel Prize for Physics

Hoyle was also at the centre of two unrelated controversies involving the politics for selecting recipients of the

Nobel Prize for Physics. The first arose when the 1974 prize went in part to Antony Hewish for his leading role in the discovery of pulsars. Hoyle made an off-the-cuff remark to a reporter in Montreal that "Yes, Jocelyn Bell was the actual discoverer, not Hewish, who was her supervisor, so she should have been included." This remark received widespread international coverage. Worried about being misunderstood, Hoyle carefully[50] composed a letter of explanation to The Times.[25]

The 1983 prize went in part to William Alfred Fowler "for his theoretical and experimental studies of the nuclear reactions of importance in the formation of the chemical elements in the universe" despite Hoyle having been the inventor of the theory of nucleosynthesis in the stars with two research papers[51] published shortly after WWII. So some suspicion arose that Hoyle was denied the third share of this prize because of his earlier public disagreement with the 1974 award.[52] British scientist Harry Kroto later said that the Nobel Prize is not just an award for a piece of work, but a recognition of a scientist's overall reputation and Hoyle's championing many disreputable and disproven ideas may have invalidated him.[25][53] In Nature, editor John Maddox called it "shameful" that Fowler had been rewarded with a Nobel prize and Hoyle had not.[53]

Media appearances

Hoyle appeared in a series of radio talks on astronomy for the BBC in the 1950s;[54] these were collected in the book The Nature of the Universe,[55] and he went on to write a number of other popular science books.

In the play Sur la route de Montalcino, the character of Fred Hoyle confronts Georges Lemaître on a fictional journey to the Vatican in 1957.[56]

Hoyle appeared in the 1973 short film Take the World From Another Point of View.[57]

In the 2004 television movie Hawking, Fred Hoyle is played by Peter Firth. In the movie, Stephen Hawking (played by Benedict Cumberbatch) publicly confronts Hoyle at a Royal Society lecture in summer 1964, about a mistake he found in his latest publication.

Honours

A statue of Fred Hoyle at the Institute of Astronomy, Cambridge

Awards

Named after him

Memorabilia

The Fred Hoyle Collection at St John's College Library contains "a pair of walking boots, five boxes of photographs, two ice axes, some dental X-rays, a telescope, ten large film reels and an unpublished opera" in addition to 150 document boxes of papers.[65]

Bibliography

Non-fiction

Science fiction

National Gallery, London
.

Hoyle also wrote science fiction. In his first novel, The Black Cloud, most intelligent life in the universe takes the form of interstellar gas clouds; they are surprised to learn that intelligent life can also form on planets. He wrote a television series, A for Andromeda, which was also published as a novel. His play Rockets in Ursa Major had a professional production at the Mermaid Theatre in 1962.

  • The Black Cloud, 1957
  • Ossian's Ride, 1959
  • A for Andromeda, 1962 (co-authored with John Elliot)
  • Fifth Planet, 1963 (co-authored with Geoffrey Hoyle)
  • Andromeda Breakthrough, 1965 (co-authored with John Elliot
    )
  • October the First Is Too Late, 1966
  • Element 79 (collection of short stories), 1967
  • Rockets in Ursa Major, 1969 (co-authored with Geoffrey Hoyle)
  • Seven Steps to the Sun, 1970 (co-authored with Geoffrey Hoyle)
  • The Inferno, 10/1973 (co-authored with Geoffrey Hoyle)
  • The Molecule Men and the Monster of Loch Ness, 1973 (co-authored with Geoffrey Hoyle)
  • Into Deepest Space, 1974 (co-authored with Geoffrey Hoyle)
  • The Incandescent Ones, 1977 (co-authored with Geoffrey Hoyle)
  • The Westminster Disaster, 1978 (co-authored with Geoffrey Hoyle and Edited by Barbara Hoyle)
  • Comet Halley, 11/1985
  • The Frozen Planet of Azuron, 1982 (Ladybird Books, co-authored with Geoffrey Hoyle)
  • The Energy Pirate, 1982 (Ladybird Books, co-authored with Geoffrey Hoyle)
  • The Planet of Death, 1982 (Ladybird Books, co-authored with Geoffrey Hoyle)
  • The Giants of Universal Park, 1982 (Ladybird Books, co-authored with Geoffrey Hoyle)

Most of these are independent of each other.

Andromeda Breakthrough is a sequel to A for Andromeda
and Into Deepest Space is a sequel to Rockets in Ursa Major. The four Ladybird Books are intended for children.

Some stories of the collection Element 79 are fantasy, in particular "Welcome to Slippage City" and "The Judgement of Aphrodite". Both introduce mythological characters.

The Telegraph (UK) called him a "masterful" science fiction writer.[34]

References

  1. ^ .
  2. ^ Sullivan, Walter (22 August 2001). "Fred Hoyle Dies at 86; Opposed 'Big Bang' but Named It". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 12 April 2020. Retrieved 15 October 2021.
  3. ^ a b c Mitton, Simon (2011). "Chapter 12: Stones, Bones, Bugs and Accidents". Fred Hoyle: A Life in Science. Cambridge University Press.
  4. .
  5. ^ "Sir Fred Hoyle". Hoyle.org.uk. Archived from the original on 17 September 2011. Retrieved 15 September 2011.
  6. ^ a b "Hoyle's Youth". St. John's College University of Cambridge.
  7. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/76123. Retrieved 10 August 2009. (Subscription or UK public library membership
    required.)
  8. ^ "Sir Fred was kindest of men, says sister". Bradford Telegraph and Argus. Retrieved 4 May 2022.
  9. ^ "History of the Parish". 2 February 2017. Archived from the original on 24 May 2022. Retrieved 4 May 2022.
  10. ^ Simon Mitton, Fred Hoyle, a Life in Science, Cambridge University Press (2011).
  11. ^ Jane Gregory, Fred Hoyle's Universe, World Scientific Pub, 2003
  12. ^ Fred Hoyle Project, St John's College, Cambridge
  13. ^ "Hugh Miller Macmillan". Macmillan Memorial Lectures. Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders in Scotland. Archived from the original on 4 October 2018. Retrieved 29 January 2019.
  14. ^ Bernard Lovell (23 August 2001). "Obituary - Sir Fred Hoyle". The Guardian. Retrieved 25 March 2024.
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  18. ^ Donald D. Clayton "Hoyle's Equation", Science 318, 1876 (2007)
  19. ^ Donald D. Clayton "Fred Hoyle, primary nucleosynthesis and radioactivity", New Astronomy Reviews 52, 360–363 (2008)
  20. ^ "Fred Hoyle, primary nucleosynthesis and radioactivity[" New Astronomy Reviews 52, 360–363 (2008), p. 363, footnote 1
  21. ^ "Hoyle's Equation" Science 318, 1876 (2007)
  22. ^ Cook, Fowler, Lauritsen and Lauritsen, Phys. Rev. 107, 508 (1957)
  23. ^ Fred Hoyle, "The Universe: Past and Present Reflections." Engineering and Science, November 1981. pp. 8–12
  24. ^ a b c McKie, Robin (2 October 2010). "Fred Hoyle: the scientist whose rudeness cost him a Nobel prize". The Guardian.
  25. ^ "William A. Fowler – Autobiography". Nobel Prize Committee. 14 March 1995. Retrieved 15 September 2011.
  26. ^ Quentin Smith, A Big Bang Cosmological Argument For God's Nonexistence. Faith and Philosophy. April 1992. Volume 9, No. 2, pp. 217–237
  27. ^ "Continuous Creation". Radio Times. No. 1328. BBC. 27 March 1949.
  28. ^ Mitton, Simon, Fred Hoyle - a life in science, p. 129, Cambridge University Press, 2011.
  29. ^ Croswell, Ken, The Alchemy of the Heavens, chapter 9, Anchor Books, 1995.
  30. ^ Curtis, Adam (24 February 2012). "A Mile or Two Off Yarmouth". BBC. Retrieved 4 August 2014.
  31. ^ Mitton, Simon, Fred Hoyle a life in science, Chapter 7, Cambridge University Press, 2011.
  32. ^ Coles, P. "Inflationary Universe". NED. NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database. Retrieved 22 March 2020.
  33. ^
    The Telegraph (UK)
    . 22 August 2001.
  34. ^ Creationism versus Darwinism. Published in Darwinism, Design, and Public Education (2003)
  35. . According to Hoyle: "I am an atheist, but as far as blowing up the world in a nuclear war goes, I tell them not to worry."
  36. ^ Hoyle, Fred (November 1981). "The Universe: Past and Present Reflections", Engineering and Science, Volume 45:2, pp. 8–12
  37. .
  38. ^ Musgrave, Ian (21 December 1998). "Lies, Damned Lies, Statistics, and Probability of Abiogenesis Calculations". TalkOrigins Archive.
  39. ^ Davies, Paul (2011) [2005]. "Foreword". In Mitton, Simon (ed.). Fred Hoyle: A Life in Science. Cambridge University Press.
  40. ^ Mitton, Simon (2011). "Chapter 11: The Watershed". Fred Hoyle: A Life in Science. Cambridge University Press.
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  45. ^ Shipman, Pat, Taking Wing: Archaeopteryx and the Evolution of Bird Flight, pp. 141–145, Simon and Schuster, 1998.
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  48. ^ "The synthesis of the elements from hydrogen" MNRAS 106, 343 (1946); "The synthesis of the elements from carbon to nickel" Astrophys. J. Suppl. 1, 121–146 (1954)
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  53. ^ Jean-François Viot, Sur la route de Montalcino Archived 9 October 2011 at the Wayback Machine, 2008. Play: Atelier Jean Vilar Archived 6 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine, 2009.
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  56. ^ "Library and Archive Catalogue". Royal Society. Retrieved 29 December 2010.[permanent dead link]
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  60. ^ Indian scientists discover three new species of bacteria[permanent dead link]. 17 March 2009. The Indian Express.
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  65. ^ "Scribd.com". Scribd.com. Archived from the original on 22 October 2012. Retrieved 15 September 2011.

Further reading

External links