Frederick Barbarossa
Frederick Barbarossa | |
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Burial |
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Spouses | Adelheid of Vohburg (m. 1147; ann. 1153) |
Issue more... | |
House | Hohenstaufen |
Father | Frederick II, Duke of Swabia |
Mother | Judith of Bavaria |
Frederick Barbarossa (December 1122 – 10 June 1190), also known as Frederick I (German: Friedrich I; Italian: Federico I), was the
Frederick was by inheritance
Frederick joined the
Historians consider him among the Holy Roman Empire's greatest medieval emperors. He combined qualities that made him appear almost
Due to his popularity and notoriety, in the 19th and early 20th centuries, he was used as a political symbol by many movements and regimes: the
Biography
Early life
Frederick was born in mid-December 1122 in
Second Crusade
In early 1147, Frederick decided to join the Second Crusade after his uncle, King Conrad III, had taken the crusader vow in public on 28 December 1146. Frederick's father, Duke Frederick II, strongly objected to this and according to Otto of Freising, the duke berated his brother for permitting his son to go. The elder Frederick, who was dying, expected his son to look after his widow and younger half-brother once he had passed on, not risk his life by going on a crusade.[10]
Perhaps in preparation for the crusade, Frederick married Adelaide of Vohburg sometime before March 1147. His father died on 4 or 6 April and Frederick succeeded him as the Duke of Swabia. The German crusader army departed from Regensburg seven weeks later.[10]
In August 1147, while crossing the
A few weeks later, on 8 September, Frederick and Welf VI were among the few German crusaders who survived when a flash flood destroyed the main camp. They had decided to encamp on a hill a ways away from the main army. The remains of the army reached Constantinople the following day.[11]
Conrad III attempted to lead the army across Anatolia but finding this too difficult in the face of constant Turkish attacks near Dorylaeum, decided to turn back. The rearguard was subsequently annihilated. Conrad sent Frederick ahead to inform King Louis VII of France of the disaster and ask for help. The two armies, French and German, then advanced together. When Conrad fell ill around Christmas in Ephesus, he returned to Constantinople by ship with his personal retinue, which included Frederick.[11]
With Byzantine ships and money, the German army once again left Constantinople on 7 March 1148 and arrived in
The
On the route home, Conrad III and Frederick stopped in Thessaloniki where they swore oaths to uphold the treaty that Conrad had agreed with Emperor Manuel I Komnenos the previous winter. This treaty obligated the Germans to attack King Roger II of Sicily in cooperation with the Byzantines. After confirming the treaty, Frederick was sent ahead to Germany. He passed through Bulgaria and Hungary and arrived in Germany in April 1149.[11]
Election
When Conrad died in February 1152, only Frederick and the
The reigns of
The Germany that Frederick tried to unite was a patchwork of more than 1,600 individual states, each with its own prince. A few of these, such as Bavaria and Saxony, were large. Many were too small to pinpoint on a map.[17] The titles afforded to the German king were "Caesar", "Augustus", and "Emperor of the Romans". By the time Frederick would assume these, they were little more than propaganda slogans with little other meaning.[18] Frederick was a pragmatist who dealt with the princes by finding a mutual self-interest. Unlike Henry II of England, Frederick did not attempt to end medieval feudalism, but rather tried to restore it, though this was beyond his ability. The great players in the German civil war had been the Pope, Emperor, Ghibellines and the Guelfs, but none of these had emerged as the winner.[19]
Rise to power
Eager to restore the Empire to the position it had occupied under
First Italian Campaign: 1154–55
Frederick undertook six expeditions into Italy. In the first, beginning in October 1154,
As Frederick approached the gates of Rome, the Pope advanced to meet him. At the royal tent the king received him, and after kissing the pope's feet, Frederick expected to receive the traditional kiss of peace.[30] Frederick had declined to hold the Pope's stirrup while leading him to the tent, however, so Adrian refused to give the kiss until this protocol had been complied with.[30] Frederick hesitated, and Adrian IV withdrew; after a day's negotiation, Frederick agreed to perform the required ritual, reportedly muttering, "Pro Petro, non Adriano – For Peter, not for Adrian."[30] Rome was still in an uproar over the fate of Arnold of Brescia, so rather than marching through the streets of Rome, Frederick and Adrian retired to the Vatican.
The next day, 18 June 1155, Adrian IV crowned Frederick I
Disorder was again rampant in Germany, especially in Bavaria, but general peace was restored by Frederick's vigorous, but conciliatory, measures. The duchy of Bavaria was transferred from
On 9 June 1156 at
Second, Third and Fourth Italian Campaigns: 1158–1174
The retreat of Frederick in 1155 forced Pope Adrian IV to come to terms with King William I of Sicily, granting to William I territories that Frederick viewed as his dominion.
The death of Pope Adrian IV in 1159 led to the election of two rival popes, Alexander III and the
The political result of the struggle with Pope Alexander was an alliance formed between the Norman state of Sicily and Pope Alexander III against Frederick.
In 1164 Frederick took what are believed to be the
In the meantime Frederick was focused on restoring peace in the Rhineland, where he organized a magnificent celebration of the canonization of Charlemagne at Aachen, under the authority of the antipope Paschal III. Concerned over rumours that Alexander III was about to enter into an alliance with the Byzantine Emperor Manuel I,[53] in October 1166 Frederick embarked on his fourth Italian campaign, hoping as well to secure the claim of Paschal III and the coronation of his wife Beatrice as Holy Roman Empress. This time, Henry the Lion refused to join Frederick on his Italian trip, tending instead to his own disputes with neighbors and his continuing expansion into Slavic territories in northeastern Germany. In 1167 Frederick began besieging Ancona, which had acknowledged the authority of Manuel I;[54] at the same time, his forces achieved a great victory over the Romans at the Battle of Monte Porzio.[55] Heartened by this victory, Frederick lifted the siege of Ancona and hurried to Rome, where he had his wife crowned empress and also received a second coronation from Paschal III.[55] His campaign was halted by the sudden outbreak of an epidemic (malaria or the plague), which threatened to destroy the Imperial army and drove the emperor as a fugitive to Germany,[56][57] where he remained for the ensuing six years. During this period, Frederick decided conflicting claims to various bishoprics, asserted imperial authority over Bohemia, Poland, and Hungary, initiated friendly relations with Manuel I, and tried to come to a better understanding with Henry II of England and Louis VII of France. Many Swabian counts, including his cousin the young Duke of Swabia, Frederick IV, died in 1167, so he was able to organize a new mighty territory in the Duchy of Swabia under his reign in this time. Consequently, his younger son Frederick V became the new Duke of Swabia in 1167,[58] while his eldest son Henry was crowned King of the Romans in 1169, alongside his father who also retained the title.[56]
Later years
Increasing anti-German sentiment swept through Lombardy, culminating in the restoration of Milan in 1169.
The scene was similar to that which had occurred between
In a move to consolidate his reign after the disastrous expedition into Italy, Frederick was formally crowned
Frederick did not forgive Henry the Lion for refusing to come to his aid in 1176.[70] By 1180, Henry had successfully established a powerful and contiguous state comprising Saxony, Bavaria, and substantial territories in the north and east of Germany. Taking advantage of the hostility of other German princes to Henry, Frederick had Henry tried in absentia by a court of bishops and princes in 1180, declared that imperial law overruled traditional German law, and had Henry stripped of his lands and declared an outlaw.[71] He then invaded Saxony with an imperial army to force his cousin to surrender. Henry's allies deserted him, and he finally had to submit to Frederick at an Imperial Diet in Erfurt in November 1181.[72] Henry spent three years in exile at the court of his father-in-law Henry II of England in Normandy before being allowed back into Germany. He finished his days in Germany, as the much-diminished Duke of Brunswick.[73] Frederick's desire for revenge was sated. Henry the Lion lived a relatively quiet life, sponsoring arts and architecture. Frederick's victory over Henry did not gain him as much in the German feudalistic system as it would have in the English feudalistic system. While in England the pledge of fealty went in a direct line from overlords to those under them, the Germans pledged oaths only to the direct overlord, so that in Henry's case, those below him in the feudal chain owed nothing to Frederick. Thus, despite the diminished stature of Henry the Lion, Frederick did not gain his allegiances.[74]
Frederick was faced with the reality of disorder among the German states, where continuous civil wars were waged between pretenders and the ambitious who wanted the crown for themselves. Italian unity under German rule was more myth than truth. Despite proclamations of German hegemony, the pope was the most powerful force in Italy.[75] When Frederick returned to Germany after his defeat in northern Italy, he was a bitter and exhausted man. The German princes, far from being subordinated to royal control, were intensifying their hold on wealth and power in Germany and entrenching their positions. There began to be a generalized social desire to "create greater Germany" by conquering the Slavs to the east.[76]
Although the Italian city states had achieved a measure of independence from Frederick as a result of his failed fifth expedition into Italy,
Pope Urban III died shortly after, and was succeeded by Pope Gregory VIII, who even as Papal Chancellor had pursued a more conciliatory line with the Emperor than previous popes and was more concerned with troubling reports from the Holy Land than with a power struggle with Barbarossa.[61]
Third Crusade
Around 23 November 1187, Frederick received letters that had been sent to him from the rulers of the
On 27 March 1188, at the Diet of Mainz, the archbishop of Cologne submitted to Frederick. Bishop of Würzburg, Godfrey of Spitzenberg, preached a crusade sermon and Frederick asked the assembly whether he should take the cross. At the universal acclaim of the assembly, he took the crusader's vow. His second son, the duke of Swabia, followed suit.[82] The eldest, Henry VI, was to remain behind in Germany as regent.[83] At Mainz Frederick proclaimed a "general expedition against the pagans". He set the period of preparation as 17 April 1188 to 8 April 1189 and scheduled the army to assemble at Regensburg on 23 April 1189.[82]
At Strasbourg, Frederick had imposed a small tax on the Jews of Germany to fund the crusade. He also put the Jews under his protection and forbade anyone to preach against the Jews.[81] When mobs threatened the Jews of Mainz on the eve of the assembly in March, Frederick sent the imperial marshal Henry of Kalden to disperse them. Rabbi Moses then met with the emperor, which resulted in an imperial edict threatening maiming or death for anyone who maimed or killed a Jew. On 29 March, Frederick and the rabbi rode through the streets together. Frederick successfully prevented a repeat of the massacres that had accompanied the First Crusade and Second Crusade in Germany.[84]
Because Frederick had signed a treaty of friendship with Saladin in 1175,[85] he felt it necessary to give Saladin notice of the termination of their alliance.[a] On 26 May 1188, he sent Count Henry II of Dietz to present an ultimatum to Saladin.[87] A few days after Christmas 1188, Frederick received Hungarian, Byzantine, Serbian and Seljuk envoys in Nuremberg. The Hungarians and Seljuks promised provisions and safe-conduct to the crusaders. The envoys of Stefan Nemanja, grand prince of Serbia, announced that their prince would receive Frederick in Niš. Only with difficulty was an agreement reached with the Byzantine envoy, John Kamateros. Frederick sent a large embassy ahead to make preparations in Byzantium.[87]
On 15 April 1189 in Haguenau, Frederick formally and symbolically accepted the staff and scrip of a pilgrim and set out.[88] His crusade was "the most meticulously planned and organized" up to that time.[88] According to one source written in the 1220s, Frederick organized a grand army of 100,000 men (including 20,000 knights) and set out on the overland route to the Holy Land;[89][90] This number is believed to be inaccurate by modern scholars using incomplete contemporary sources that place the size of his army at 12,000–15,000 men, including 3,000–4,000 knights.[89][91]
On 11 May 1189, after the majority of his army had already departed toward Hungary on land, Frederick sailed from Regensburg down the River Danube. When he came to the village of Mauthausen, Frederick ordered the village to be burned for levying a toll on the crusader army.[92] The Crusaders then passed through Hungary, Serbia, and Bulgaria before entering Byzantine territory. While in Hungary, Barbarossa personally asked the Hungarian Prince Géza, brother of King Béla III of Hungary, to join the Crusade. The king agreed, and a Hungarian army of 2,000 men led by Géza escorted the German emperor's forces.
Later on, Frederick camped in
The armies coming from western Europe pushed on through Anatolia, where they were victorious at the
Death and burials
Barbarossa opted on the local Armenians' advice to follow a shortcut along the
- According to "Ansbert",[c] against everyone's advice, the emperor chose to swim across the river and was swept away by the current.[100]
- Another account recorded that Frederick was thrown from his horse while crossing the river, weighed down by his armour, and drowned.[101]
- According to the chronicler Ibn al-Athir, "the king went down to the river to wash himself and was drowned at a place where the water was not even up to his waist. Thus God saved us from the evil of such a man".[102][103]
- The writer of the Adriatic, might have been exhausted from weeks of marching, hence he was fatally affected by the very hot summer in Anatolia. If the writer was Godfrey of Spitzenberg, Bishop of Würzburg, who was a close confidant of Frederick, the report would be the most plausible account of what happened, since he might have witnessed the emperor's death.[105]
Jacques de Vitry, a historian of the Crusades, outlined Frederick's endeavors and Saladin's dilemma, in which he reported:
While these were the varied fortunes of the first in the field, Frederick, the Roman emperor, set out on his journey by land with great power and a countless host of warriors. Passing over the borders of Germany, he crossed Hungary, Macedonia, and Greece and marched through the land of the Saracens with a mighty hand and a stretched-out arm. He took Iconium, Philomena, and many other cities, and reached Armenia, where, during great heat, he went into the river, which the natives call the Iron River, to bathe, and therein for our sins was miserably drowned, and so died to the loss of all Christendom. Saladin so greatly feared his approach that he ordered the walls of Laodicia, Gibelet, Tortosa, Biblium and Beyrout, to be pulled down, sparing only the fortresses, that is the citadels and towers.
— [106]
Frederick's death caused several thousand German soldiers to leave the force and return home through the Cilician and Syrian ports.
The unexpected demise of Frederick left the Crusader army under the command of the rivals Philip II and
Frederick and the Justinian code
The increase in wealth of the trading cities of northern Italy led to a revival in the study of the
In Germany, Frederick was a political realist, taking what he could and leaving the rest. In Italy, he tended to be a romantic reactionary, reveling in the antiquarian spirit of the age, exemplified by a revival of classical studies and Roman law. It was through the use of the restored Justinian code that Frederick came to view himself as a new Roman emperor.[112] Roman law gave a rational purpose for the existence of Frederick and his imperial ambitions. It was a counterweight to the claims of the Church to have authority because of divine revelation. The Church was opposed to Frederick for ideological reasons, not the least of which was the humanist nature found in the revival of the old Roman legal system.[113] When Pepin the Short sought to become king of the Franks in the 8th century, the church needed military protection, so Pepin found it convenient to make an ally of the pope. Frederick, however, desired to put the pope aside and claim the crown of old Rome simply because he was in the likeness of the great emperors of old, who tended to have a domineering role over the church, Caesaropapism. Pope Adrian IV was naturally opposed to this view and undertook a vigorous propaganda campaign designed to diminish Frederick and his ambition. To a large extent, this was successful.[114]
Economic policy
Frederick did little to encourage economic development in Germany prior to the autumn of 1165. In that year he visited the lower Rhineland, the most economically advanced region in Germany. He had already travelled to northern Italy, the most economically advanced region in the Empire, three times. From 1165 on, Frederick pursued economic policies to encourage growth and trade. There is no question that his reign was a period of major economic growth in Germany, but it is impossible now to determine how much of that growth was owed to Frederick's policies.[115]
The number of mints in Germany increased ninefold in the reign of Frederick and his son Henry, from about two dozen mints at the start of his reign to 215 mints in 1197 and from a mere two[d] royal mints to 28. Frederick himself established at least twelve royal mints, including those of Aachen, Donauwörth, Ulm, Haguenau, Duisburg, Kaiserswerth, Frankfurt, Gelnhausen and Dortmund.[115] He also granted privileges exempting the merchants of Aachen, Gelnhausen, Haguenau, Monza, Rome, Pisa and Venice[e] from all tolls within the Empire.[116]
Cultural depictions
Charismatic leader
Otto of Freising, Frederick's uncle, wrote an account of his reign entitled Gesta Friderici I imperatoris (Deeds of the Emperor Frederick), which is considered to be an accurate history of the king. Otto's other major work, the Chronica sive Historia de duabus civitatibus (Chronicle or History of the Two Cities) had been an exposition of the Civitas Dei (The City of God) of Augustine of Hippo, full of Augustinian negativity concerning the nature of the world and history. His work on Frederick is of opposite tone, being an optimistic portrayal of the glorious potentials of imperial authority.[117] Otto died after finishing the first two books, leaving the last two to Rahewin, his provost. Rahewin's text is in places heavily dependent on classical precedent.[118] For example, Rahewin's physical description of Frederick reproduces word-for-word (except for details of hair and beard) a description of another monarch, Theodoric II written nearly eight hundred years earlier by Sidonius Apollinaris:[119]
His character is such that not even those envious of his power can belittle its praise. His person is well-proportioned. He is shorter than very tall men, but taller and more noble than men of medium height. His hair is golden, curling a little above his forehead ... His eyes are sharp and piercing, his beard reddish [barba subrufa], his lips delicate ... His whole face is bright and cheerful. His teeth are even and snow-white in color ... Modesty rather than anger causes him to blush frequently. His shoulders are rather broad, and he is strongly built ...
In the opinion of Norman Cantor, Frederick's charisma led to a fantastic juggling act that, over a quarter of a century, restored the imperial authority in the German states. His formidable enemies defeated him on almost every side, yet in the end he emerged triumphant. When Frederick came to the throne, the prospects for the revival of German imperial power were extremely thin. The great German princes had increased their power and land holdings. The king had been left with only the traditional family domains and a vestige of power over the bishops and abbeys. The backwash of the Investiture controversy had left the German states in continuous turmoil. Rival states were in perpetual war. These conditions allowed Frederick to be both warrior and occasional peace-maker, both to his advantage.[16]
Legend
Frederick is the subject of many legends, including that of a
In medieval Europe, the
Another legend states that when Barbarossa was in the process of seizing Milan in 1158, his wife, the Empress Beatrice, was taken captive by the enraged Milanese and forced to ride through the city on a donkey in a humiliating manner. Some sources of this legend indicate that Barbarossa implemented his revenge for this insult by forcing the magistrates of the city to remove a fig from the anus of a donkey using only their teeth.[124] Another source states that Barbarossa took his wrath upon every able-bodied man in the city, and that it was not a fig they were forced to hold in their mouth, but excrement from the donkey. To add to this debasement, they were made to announce, "Ecco la fica" (meaning "behold the fig"), with the feces still in their mouths. It used to be said that the insulting gesture (called fico), of holding one's fist with the thumb in between the middle and forefinger came by its origin from this event.[125]
Frederick's legend was further reinforced in the early twentieth century, when Adolf Hitler named Nazi Germany's invasion of the Soviet Union after him.
Historiography
In 1975, Frederick's charters were published. This and the postwar abandonment of the Kyffhäuser myth have led to the publications of several new biographies. The notable recent authorities among German-speaking historians include Ferdinand Opll,[126] Johannes Laudage,[128] and Knut Görich.[129]
Opll's Friedrich Barbarossa (1990) presents the emperor as a pragmatic leader with a capacity of adaptation and recovery after defeat.[130] Laudage investigates the important role of the concept of honour in Frederick's decisions while explaining the far-reaching visions of the emperor and his advisers,[131][132] while Görich (who also emphasizes the honour, or honor imperii factor) questions whether traditional researchers have overemphasized the intentional side of Frederick's politics and instead highlights his flexibility and consensus-building capability as a leader.[133]
In Italy, the scholarly attention towards Frederick's person and his reign is also considerable,[134] with notable contributions including Franco Cardini's sympathetic 1985 biography[135] or the 1982 work Federico Barbarossa nel dibattito storiografico in Italia e in Germania, edited by Manselli and Riedmann, considered by Schumann to be a definite synthesis of non-nationally oriented historiography approaches (combining German and Italian research results) of the last forty years.[134]
Artistic depictions
- In Victor Hugo's romantic play Les Burgraves (1843), Frederick (as character Frédéric de Hohenstaufen) returns many years after he was presumed dead, as expected by some medieval legends.[136]
- Cyrus Townsend Brady's Hohenzollern; a Story of the Time of Frederick Barbarossa (1901) begins with a dedication to "the descendants of the great Germanic race who in Europe, in America, and in the Far East rule the world".[137]
- Land of Unreason (1941), by L. Sprague de Camp and Fletcher Pratt, mentions the castle of the Kyffhäuser.[138]
- Umberto Eco's novel Baudolino (2000) is set partly at Frederick's court, and also deals with the mystery of Frederick's death. The imaginary hero, Baudolino, is the Emperor's adopted son and confidant.[139]
- In the 2009 movie Barbarossa (also titled Sword of War and Barbarossa: Siege Lord), Barbarossa is one of the main characters, played by Rutger Hauer.[140]
- The German broadcaster Deutsche Welle (DW) 2018 documentary (The Germans), featured Frederick I in its 3rd of 6 episodes.[141]
- Recently, to commemorate the emperor, the Supply Battalion 131 (called "Battalion Barbarossa") of the Kyffhäuser barracks (Kyffhäuser-Kaserne, Bundeswehr) built a huge ground artwork Archived 5 August 2022 at the Wayback Machine in Bad Frankenhausen, which uses among other things 300 roles of fabric (each was 100 meters long). The mission is named Rotbart ("Redbeard").[142]
- In the video game series, Sid Meier's Civilization, Frederick makes an appearance as a playable leader in the sixth installment.
Ancestry
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Children
Frederick's first marriage, to
From his second marriage to Beatrice of Burgundy,[143] he had the following children:[144]
- Beatrice (end 1162/early 1163 – at least early 1174/1179). King William II of Sicily first asked for her hand, but the marriage negotiations never came through. She married Guillaume (II) count of Chalon in 1173 and was mother to Beatrix, countess of Chalon.[145]
- Frederick V, Duke of Swabia (Pavia, 16 July 1164 – 28 November 1170).
- Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor (Nijmegen, November 1165 – Messina, 28 September 1197).[143]
- Conrad (Modigliana, February 1167 – Acre, 20 January 1191), later renamed Frederick VI, Duke of Swabia after the death of his older brother.[143]
- Gisela (October/November 1168 – end 1184). She was betrothed to Richard, Count of Poitou (later King of England) but died before they could be married.
- Otto I, Count of Burgundy (June/July 1170 – killed, Besançon, 13 January 1200).[143]
- Conrad II, Duke of Swabia and Rothenburg (February/March 1172 – killed, Durlach, 15 August 1196).[143]
- Renaud (October/November 1173 – before April 1174/soon after October 1178).
- William (June/July 1175 – soon after October 1178).
- King of Germany in 1198.[143]
- Agnes (early 1179 – 8 October 1184). She was betrothed to King Emeric of Hungary, but died before they could be married.
- Possibly Clemence, wife of Sancho VII of Navarre.
See also
- German monarchs family tree
- Dukes of Swabia family tree
- Operation Barbarossa, the codename of the German invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941,[146] named after the emperor by Hitler.[147]
Notes
- ^ There is a published correspondence, almost certainly forged, between Frederick and Saladin concerning the end of their friendship.[86]
- ^ Seljuk Sultan Kilij Arslan II promised the armies of the Third Crusade, led by Frederick Barbarossa to freely pass through his territories; however, his sons who were local chieftains disagreed and fought against the Crusaders at the Battle of Philomelion and Battle of Iconium.[94]
- Passau Cathedral who accompanied the crusaders.[99]
- ^ Those of Goslar and Nuremberg were the only royal mints operating in the reign of Conrad III.
- ^ All of these were cities of the Empire except for Venice.
References
Citations
- ^ Peter Moraw, Heiliges Reich, in: Lexikon des Mittelalters, Munich & Zurich: Artemis 1977–1999, vol. 4, pp. 2025–2028.
- ^ Iba & Johnson (2015), p. 29
- ^ a b "Federico I imperatore, detto il Barbarossa nell'Enciclopedia Treccani". www.treccani.it (in Italian). Retrieved 28 October 2022.
- ISBN 978-3-86309-385-3. Retrieved 22 February 2022.
- ISBN 978-3-412-52094-6. Retrieved 22 February 2022.
- ISBN 978-3-11-061913-3. Retrieved 22 February 2022.
- ^ Freed 2016, p. 15.
- ^ Dahmus (1969), pp. 300–302
- ^ Görich 2015, pp. 9–33.
- ^ a b Freed 2016, pp. 43–45.
- ^ a b c d e f Freed 2016, pp. 51–53.
- ^ a b c Comyn (1851), p. 200
- ^ Le Goff (2000), p. 266
- ^ Bryce (1913), p. 166
- ^ Cantor (1969), pp. 302–303
- ^ a b Cantor (1969), pp. 428–429
- ^ Dahmus (1969), p. 359
- ^ Brown (1972)
- ^ Davis (1957), pp. 318–319
- ^ a b c d e Chisholm (1911), p. 45
- ^ Comyn (1851), p. 202
- ^ Comyn (1851), p. 201
- ^ a b c Comyn (1851), p. 230
- ^ Falco (1964), pp. 218 et seq.
- ^ Comyn (1851), p. 227
- ^ Comyn (1851), p. 228
- ^ Comyn (1851), p. 229
- ^ Elliott, Gillian. ""Representing Royal Authority at San Michele Maggiore in Pavia"". Zeitschrift fur Kunstgeschichte 77 (2014). Retrieved 30 July 2022.
- ^ Cantor (1969), pp. 368–369
- ^ a b c Comyn (1851), p. 231
- ^ a b Comyn (1851), p. 232
- ^ Comyn (1851), p. 233
- ^ Comyn (1851), p. 203
- ^ Davis (1957), p. 319
- ^ "Peace of the Land Established by Frederick Barbarossa Between 1152 and 1157 A.D." The Avalon Project. Yale Law School. 29 December 1998.
- ^ Comyn (1851), p. 234
- ^ Ua Clerigh, Arthur (1913). Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. . In Herbermann, Charles (ed.).
- ^ Comyn (1851), p. 235
- ^ Comyn (1851), p. 236
- ^ Comyn (1851), p. 238
- ^ Comyn (1851), p. 240
- ^ "Frederick I | Holy Roman emperor". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 22 August 2017.
- ^ Comyn (1851), p. 241
- ^ Comyn (1851), p. 242
- ^ a b Comyn (1851), p. 243
- ^ Madden (2016), p. 328
- ^ Munz (1969), p. 228
- ^ Davis (1957), pp. 326–327
- ^ Comyn (1851), p. 245
- ^ Comyn (1851), p. 246
- )
- ^ Comyn (1851), p. 247
- ^ Comyn (1851), p. 248
- ^ Comyn (1851), p. 249
- ^ a b Comyn (1851), p. 250
- ^ a b Comyn (1851), p. 251
- ^ See entry for the contemporary chroniclers, Ottone and Acerbo Morena.
- ^ Comyn (1851), p. 252
- ^ Comyn (1851), p. 253
- ^ Leyser (1988), p. 157
- ^ a b Kampers, Franz. "Frederick I (Barbarossa)". The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 6. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1909. 21 May 2009.
- ^ Le Goff (2000), p. 104
- ^ Reprint of B. Arthaud. La civilization de l'Occident medieval, Paris, 1964.
- ^ Comyn (1851), p. 257
- ^ Davis (1957), pp. 332 et seq.
- ^ Brown (1972), pp. 164–165
- ^ Comyn (1851), p. 260
- ^ See Yale Avalon project.
- ^ Le Goff (2000), pp. 96–97
- ^ Comyn (1851), p. 263
- ^ Davis (1957), p. 333
- ^ Friedrich (2003), p. 5
- ^ Comyn (1851), p. 264
- ^ Cantor (1969), pp. 433–434
- ^ Le Goff (2000), pp. 102–103
- ^ Cantor (1969), p. 429
- ^ Comyn (1851), p. 262
- ^ Dahmus (1969), p. 240
- ^ Comyn (1851), p. 265
- ^ Comyn (1851), p. 266
- ^ a b Freed 2016, p. 471.
- ^ a b Freed 2016, pp. 472–473.
- ^ Freed 2016, p. 479.
- ^ Freed 2016, pp. 473–474.
- ^ Freed 2016, p. 355.
- ^ Freed 2016, p. 626 n.44.
- ^ a b Freed 2016, pp. 480–481.
- ^ a b Freed 2016, p. 482.
- ^ a b Loud 2010, p. 19.
- ^ J. Phillips, The Fourth Crusade and the Sack of Constantinople, 66
- ^ Konstam, Historical Atlas of the Crusades, 162
- ^ Loud, p. 47
- ^ Freed 2016, pp. 494–504.
- ^ "History of the Anatolian Seljuks". turkishhan.org.
- ^ Loud 2010, p. 111.
- ^ Loud 2010, p. 64.
- ^ Comyn (1851), p. 267
- ^ Hickman, Kennedy. "Biography of Frederick I Barbarossa, Holy Roman Emperor". ThoughtCo. Retrieved 3 December 2019.
- ^ Freed 2016, p. 626.
- ^ Freed 2016, pp. 511–512.
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- ^ "Letter on the Sacred Expedition of the Emperor Frederick I" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.
- ^ a b Freed 2016, p. 512.
- ^ Jacques de Vitry 2013, pp. 110–111.
- ^ a b Loud 2010, p. 181.
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- ^ Freed 2016, p. 369.
- ^ Cantor (1969), pp. 359–360
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- ^ Brown (1972), p. 172
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- ^ Walford, Cox & Apperson (1885), p. 119
- ^ Novobatzky & Shea (2001)
- ^ a b c Freed 2016, pp. xxxi–xxxiii.
- ^ Görich & Wihoda 2017, pp. 191, 192.
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- ^ Opll 1990, pp. 299–308.
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- ^ Brady (1901)
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- ^ Byatt, AS (18 October 2002). "Here be monsters: AS Byatt is entertained yet baffled by Umberto Eco's latest novel, Baudolino, an uneasy mixture of history and fantasy". The Guardian. Retrieved 18 January 2019.
- ^ Barbarossa at AllMovie
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- ^ "Mission "Rotbart" am Kyffhäuser: Bundeswehr baut Barbarossa-Bodenbild". bild.de (in German). Retrieved 15 August 2022.
- ^ a b c d e f g Gislebertus (of Mons), Chronicle of Hainaut, transl. Laura Napran, (Boydell Press, 2005), 55 note245.
- ^ Erwin Assmann: Friedrich Barbarossas Kinder In: German Archives for Research into the Middle Ages, Vol. 33 (1977), pp. 435–472, footnote p. 459.
- ^ Anselme de Sainte-Marie, Augustin (1726). Histoire généalogique et chronologique de la maison royale de France, des pairs, grands officiers de la Couronne, de la Maison du Roy et des anciens barons du royaume.... Tome 8 / par le P. Anselme,... ; continuée par M. Du Fourny (in French). p. 62.
- ^ Kershaw (2001), p. 335
- ^ Freed 2016, p. xvii.
Sources
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External links
- MSN Encarta – Frederick I (Holy Roman Empire) (Archived 2009-10-31)
- Famous Men of the Middle Ages – Frederick Barbarossa
- Charter given by Emperor Frederick Archived 26 March 2023 at the Marburg University