French and Indian War
French and Indian War | |||||||||
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Part of the Seven Years' War and the Sixty Years' War | |||||||||
The war theater | |||||||||
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Belligerents | |||||||||
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Commanders and leaders | |||||||||
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Pontiac | ||||||||
Strength | |||||||||
42,000 regulars and militia (peak strength, 1758)[1] | 10,000 regulars (troupes de la terre and troupes de la marine, peak strength, 1757)[2] | ||||||||
Casualties and losses | |||||||||
| Unknown |
The French and Indian War (1754–1763) was a
Two years into the war, in 1756, Great Britain declared war on France, beginning the worldwide Seven Years' War. Many view the French and Indian War as being merely the American theater of this conflict; however, in the United States the French and Indian War is viewed as a singular conflict which was not associated with any European war.[6] French Canadians call it the guerre de la Conquête ('War of the Conquest').[7][8]
The British colonists were supported at various times by the
In 1755, six colonial governors met with General Edward Braddock, the newly arrived British Army commander, and planned a four-way attack on the French. None succeeded, and the main effort by Braddock proved a disaster; he lost the Battle of the Monongahela on July 9, 1755, and died a few days later. British operations failed in the frontier areas of the Province of Pennsylvania and the Province of New York during 1755–57 due to a combination of poor management, internal divisions, effective Canadian scouts, French regular forces, and Native warrior allies. In 1755, the British captured Fort Beauséjour on the border separating Nova Scotia from Acadia, and they ordered the expulsion of the Acadians (1755–64) soon afterwards. Orders for the deportation were given by Commander-in-Chief William Shirley without direction from Great Britain. The Acadians were expelled, both those captured in arms and those who had sworn the loyalty oath to the king. Natives likewise were driven off the land to make way for settlers from New England.[11]
The British Pitt government fell due to disastrous campaigns in 1757, including a failed
France also ceded its territory east of the Mississippi to Great Britain, as well as French Louisiana west of the Mississippi River to its ally Spain in compensation for Spain's loss to Britain of Spanish Florida. (Spain had ceded Florida to Britain in exchange for the return of Havana, Cuba.) France's colonial presence north of the Caribbean was reduced to the islands of Saint Pierre and Miquelon, confirming Great Britain's position as the dominant colonial power in northern America.
Nomenclature
In British America, wars were often named after the sitting British monarch, such as King William's War or Queen Anne's War. There had already been a King George's War in the 1740s during the reign of King George II, so British colonists named this conflict after their opponents, and it became known as the French and Indian War.[12] This continues as the standard name for the war in the United States, although indigenous peoples fought on both sides of the conflict. It also led into the Seven Years' War overseas, a much larger conflict between France and Great Britain that did not involve the American colonies; some historians make a connection between the French and Indian War and the Seven Years' War overseas, but most residents of the United States consider them as two separate conflicts—only one of which involved the American colonies,[13] and American historians generally use the traditional name. Less frequently used names for the war include the Fourth Intercolonial War and the Great War for the Empire.[12]
In Europe, the French and Indian War is conflated into the Seven Years' War and not given a separate name. "Seven Years" refers to events in Europe, from the official declaration of war in 1756—two years after the French and Indian War had started—to the signing of the peace treaty in 1763. The French and Indian War in America, by contrast, was largely concluded in six years from the Battle of Jumonville Glen in 1754 to the capture of Montreal in 1760.[12]
Canadians conflate both the European and American conflicts into the Seven Years' War (Guerre de Sept Ans).[7] French Canadians also use the term "War of Conquest" (Guerre de la Conquête), since it is the war in which New France was conquered by the British and became part of the British Empire. In Quebec, this term was promoted by popular historians Jacques Lacoursière and Denis Vaugeois, who borrowed from the ideas of Maurice Séguin in considering this war as a dramatic tipping point of French Canadian identity and nationhood.[14]
Background
At this time, North America east of the Mississippi River was largely claimed by either Great Britain or France. Large areas had no colonial settlements. The French population numbered about 75,000 and was heavily concentrated along the St. Lawrence River valley, with some also in Acadia (present-day New Brunswick and parts of Nova Scotia), including Île Royale (Cape Breton Island). Fewer lived in New Orleans; Biloxi, Mississippi; Mobile, Alabama; and small settlements in the Illinois Country, hugging the east side of the Mississippi River and its tributaries. French fur traders and trappers traveled throughout the St. Lawrence and Mississippi watersheds, did business with local Indian tribes, and often married Indian women.[15] Traders married daughters of chiefs, creating high-ranking unions.
British settlers outnumbered the French 20 to 1
Between the French and British colonists, large areas were dominated by Indian tribes. To the north, the
The Southeast interior was dominated by Siouan-speaking
The British colonists were supported in the war by the Iroquois
At this time, Spain claimed only the province of Florida in eastern America. It controlled Cuba and other territories in the West Indies that became military objectives in the Seven Years' War. Florida's European population was a few hundred, concentrated in St. Augustine.[23]
There were no French regular army troops stationed in America at the onset of war. New France was defended by about 3,000
When hostilities began, the British colonial governments preferred operating independently of one another and of the government in London. This situation complicated negotiations with Indian tribes, whose territories often encompassed land claimed by multiple colonies. As the war progressed, the leaders of the British Army establishment tried to impose constraints and demands on the colonial administrations.[citation needed]
Céloron's expedition
New France's Governor-General Roland-Michel Barrin de La Galissonière was concerned about the incursion and expanding influence in the Ohio Country of British colonial traders such as George Croghan. In June 1747, he ordered Pierre-Joseph Céloron to lead a military expedition through the area. Its objectives were:
- to reaffirm to New France's Indian allies that their trading arrangements with colonists were exclusive to those authorized by New France
- to confirm Indian assistance in asserting and maintaining the French claim to the territories which French explorers had claimed
- to discourage any alliances between Britain and local Indian tribes
- to impress the Indians with a French show of force against British colonial settler incursion, unauthorized trading expeditions, and general trespass against French claims[24]
Céloron's expedition force consisted of about 200
Céloron's expedition arrived at
Céloron wrote an extensively detailed report. "All I can say is that the Natives of these localities are very badly disposed towards the French," he wrote, "and are entirely devoted to the English. I don't know in what way they could be brought back."[25] Even before his return to Montreal, reports on the situation in the Ohio Country were making their way to London and Paris, each side proposing that action be taken. Massachusetts governor William Shirley was particularly forceful, stating that British colonists would not be safe as long as the French were present.[27]
Negotiations
The War of the Austrian Succession ended in 1748 with the signing of the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, which was primarily focused on resolving issues in Europe. The issues of conflicting territorial claims between British and French colonies were turned over to a commission, but it reached no decision. Frontier areas were claimed by both sides, from Nova Scotia and Acadia in the north to the Ohio Country in the south. The disputes also extended into the Atlantic Ocean, where both powers wanted access to the rich fisheries of the Grand Banks off Newfoundland.[citation needed]
In 1749, the British government gave land to the
Escalation in Ohio Country
Governor-General of New France
Construction of French fortifications
This section needs additional citations for verification. (April 2017) |
In the spring of 1753,
The Iroquois sent runners to the manor of William Johnson in upstate New York, who was the British Superintendent for Indian Affairs in the New York region and beyond. Johnson was known to the Iroquois as Warraghiggey, meaning "he who does great things." He spoke their languages and had become a respected honorary member of the Iroquois Confederacy in the area, and he was made a colonel of the Iroquois in 1746; he was later commissioned as a colonel of the Western New York Militia.
The Indian representatives and Johnson met with Governor
Virginia's response
Governor Robert Dinwiddie of Virginia was an investor in the Ohio Company, which stood to lose money if the French held their claim.[34] He ordered 21-year-old Major George Washington (whose brother was another Ohio Company investor) of the Virginia Regiment to warn the French to leave Virginia territory in October 1753.[35] Washington left with a small party, picking up Jacob Van Braam as an interpreter, Christopher Gist (a company surveyor working in the area), and a few Mingos led by Tanaghrisson. On December 12, Washington and his men reached Fort Le Boeuf.[36][37]
Jacques Legardeur de Saint-Pierre succeeded Marin as commander of the French forces after Marin died on October 29, and he invited Washington to dine with him. Over dinner, Washington presented Saint-Pierre with the letter from Dinwiddie demanding an immediate French withdrawal from the Ohio Country. Saint-Pierre said, "As to the Summons you send me to retire, I do not think myself obliged to obey it."[38] He told Washington that France's claim to the region was superior to that of the British, since René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle had explored the Ohio Country nearly a century earlier.[39]
Washington's party left Fort Le Boeuf early on December 16 and arrived in Williamsburg on January 16, 1754. He stated in his report, "The French had swept south",[40] detailing the steps which they had taken to fortify the area, and their intention to fortify the confluence of the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers.[41]
Course of war
Even before Washington returned, Dinwiddie had sent a company of 40 men under William Trent to that point where they began construction of a small stockaded fort in the early months of 1754.[42] Governor Duquesne sent additional French forces under Claude-Pierre Pécaudy de Contrecœur to relieve Saint-Pierre during the same period, and Contrecœur led 500 men south from Fort Venango on April 5, 1754.[43] These forces arrived at the fort on April 16, but Contrecœur generously allowed Trent's small company to withdraw. He purchased their construction tools to continue building what became Fort Duquesne.[44]
Early engagements
Dinwiddie had ordered Washington to lead a larger force to assist Trent in his work, and Washington learned of Trent's retreat while he was en route.
Following the battle, Washington pulled back several miles and established Fort Necessity, which the Canadians attacked under the command of Jumonville's brother at the Battle of Fort Necessity on July 3. Washington surrendered and negotiated a withdrawal under arms. One of his men reported that the Canadian force was accompanied by Shawnee, Delaware, and Mingo warriors—just those whom Tanaghrisson was seeking to influence.[48]
News of the two battles reached England in August. After several months of negotiations, the government of
In a second British action, Admiral Edward Boscawen fired on the French ship Alcide on June 8, 1755, capturing her and two troop ships.[52] The British harassed French shipping throughout 1755, seizing ships and capturing seamen. These actions contributed to the eventual formal declarations of war in spring 1756.[53]
An early important political response to the opening of hostilities was the convening of the Albany Congress in June and July, 1754. The goal of the congress was to formalize a unified front in trade and negotiations with the Indians, since the allegiance of the various tribes and nations was seen to be pivotal in the war that was unfolding. The plan that the delegates agreed to was neither ratified by the colonial legislatures nor approved by the Crown. Nevertheless, the format of the congress and many specifics of the plan became the prototype for confederation during the War of Independence.
British campaigns, 1755
The British formed an aggressive plan of operations for 1755. General Braddock was to lead the expedition to Fort Duquesne,
Braddock led about 1,500 army troops and provincial militia on the
The British government initiated a plan to increase their military capability in preparation for war following news of Braddock's defeat and the start of parliament's session in November 1755. Among the early legislative measures were the
The French acquired a copy of the British war plans, including the activities of Shirley and Johnson. Shirley's efforts to fortify Oswego were bogged down in logistical difficulties, exacerbated by his inexperience in managing large expeditions. In conjunction, he was made aware that the French were massing for an attack on Fort Oswego in his absence when he planned to attack Fort Niagara. As a response, he left garrisons at Oswego, Fort Bull, and Fort Williams, the last two located on the Oneida Carry between the Mohawk River and Wood Creek at Rome, New York. Supplies were cached at Fort Bull for use in the projected attack on Niagara.
Johnson's expedition was better organized than Shirley's, which was noticed by New France's governor the
Colonel Monckton
French victories, 1756–1757
Following the death of Braddock, William Shirley assumed command of British forces in North America, and he laid out his plans for 1756 at a meeting in Albany in December 1755. He proposed renewing the efforts to capture Niagara, Crown Point, and Duquesne, with attacks on Fort Frontenac on the north shore of Lake Ontario and an expedition through the wilderness of the Maine district and down the Chaudière River to attack the city of Quebec. His plan, however, got bogged down by disagreements and disputes with others, including William Johnson and New York's Governor Sir Charles Hardy, and consequently gained little support.
Newcastle replaced him in January 1756 with
Governor Vaudreuil had ambitions to become the French commander in chief, in addition to his role as governor, and he acted during the winter of 1756 before those reinforcements arrived. Scouts had reported the weakness of the British supply chain, so he ordered an attack against the forts which Shirley had erected at the Oneida Carry. In the Battle of Fort Bull, French forces destroyed the fort and large quantities of supplies, including 45,000 pounds of gunpowder. They set back any British hopes for campaigns on Lake Ontario and endangered the Oswego garrison, already short on supplies. French forces in the Ohio valley also continued to intrigue with Indians throughout the area, encouraging them to raid frontier settlements. This led to ongoing alarms along the western frontiers, with streams of refugees returning east to get away from the action.
The new British command was not in place until July. Abercrombie arrived in Albany but refused to take any significant actions until Loudoun approved them, and Montcalm took bold action against his inertia. He built on Vaudreuil's work harassing the Oswego garrison and executed a strategic feint by moving his headquarters to Ticonderoga, as if to presage another attack along Lake George. With Abercrombie pinned down at Albany, Montcalm slipped away and led the successful attack on Oswego in August. In the aftermath, Montcalm and the Indians under his command disagreed about the disposition of prisoners' personal effects. The Europeans did not consider them prizes and prevented the Indians from stripping the prisoners of their valuables, which angered the Indians.
Loudoun was a capable administrator but a cautious field commander, and he planned one major operation for 1757: an attack on New France's capital of
French irregular forces (Canadian scouts and Indians) harassed Fort William Henry throughout the first half of 1757. In January, they ambushed British rangers near Ticonderoga. In February, they launched a raid against the position across the frozen Lake George, destroying storehouses and buildings outside the main fortification. In early August, Montcalm and 7,000 troops besieged the fort, which capitulated with an agreement to withdraw under parole. When the withdrawal began, some of Montcalm's Indian allies attacked the British column because they were angry about the lost opportunity for loot, killing and capturing several hundred men, women, children, and slaves. The aftermath of the siege may have contributed to the transmission of smallpox into remote Indian populations, as some Indians were reported to have traveled from beyond the Mississippi to participate in the campaign and returned afterward. Modern writer William Nester believes that the Indians might have been exposed to European carriers, although no proof exists.[63]
British conquest, 1758–1760
Vaudreuil and Montcalm were minimally resupplied in 1758, as the British blockade of the French coastline limited French shipping. The situation in New France was further exacerbated by a poor harvest in 1757, a difficult winter, and the allegedly corrupt machinations of François Bigot, the intendant of the territory. His schemes to supply the colony inflated prices and were believed by Montcalm to line his pockets and those of his associates. A massive outbreak of smallpox among western Indian tribes led many of them to stay away from trading in 1758. The disease probably spread through the crowded conditions at William Henry after the battle;[64] yet the Indians blamed the French for bringing "bad medicine" as well as denying them prizes at Fort William Henry.
Montcalm focused his meager resources on the defense of the St. Lawrence, with primary defenses at Carillon, Quebec, and Louisbourg, while Vaudreuil argued unsuccessfully for a continuation of the raiding tactics that had worked quite effectively in previous years.[65] The British failures in North America combined with other failures in the European theater and led to Newcastle's fall from power along with the Duke of Cumberland, his principal military advisor.
Newcastle and Pitt joined in an uneasy coalition in which Pitt dominated the military planning. He embarked on a plan for the 1758 campaign that was largely developed by Loudoun. He had been replaced by Abercrombie as commander in chief after the failures of 1757. Pitt's plan called for three major offensive actions involving large numbers of regular troops supported by the provincial militias, aimed at capturing the heartlands of New France. Two of the expeditions were successful, with Fort Duquesne and Louisbourg falling to sizable British forces.
1758
The Forbes Expedition was a British campaign in September–October 1758, with 6,000 troops led by General John Forbes sent to drive out the French from the contested Ohio Country. The French withdrew from Fort Duquesne and left the British in control of the Ohio River Valley.[66] The great French fortress at Louisbourg in Nova Scotia was captured after a siege.[67]
The third invasion was stopped with the improbable French victory in the Battle of Carillon, in which 3,600 Frenchmen defeated Abercrombie's force of 18,000 regulars, militia, and Indian allies outside the fort which the French called Carillon and the British called Ticonderoga. Abercrombie saved something from the disaster when he sent John Bradstreet on an expedition that successfully destroyed Fort Frontenac, including caches of supplies destined for New France's western forts and furs destined for Europe. Abercrombie was recalled and replaced by Jeffery Amherst, victor at Louisbourg.
The French had generally poor results in 1758 in most theaters of the war. The new foreign minister was the
1759–1760
The British proceeded to wage a campaign in the northwest frontier of Canada in an effort to cut off the French frontier forts to the west and south. They captured Ticonderoga and Fort Niagara, and they defeated the French at the Thousand Islands in the summer of 1759. In September 1759, James Wolfe defeated Montcalm in the Battle of the Plains of Abraham which claimed the lives of both commanders. After the battle, the French capitulated the city to the British.
In April 1760,
Sporadic engagements, 1760–1763
Most of the fighting ended in America in 1760, although it continued in Europe between France and Britain. The notable exception was the French seizure of
Peace
Governor Vaudreuil in Montreal
General Amherst also oversaw the transfer of French fortifications to British control on the western frontier. The policies which he introduced in those lands disturbed large numbers of Natives and contributed to the outbreak of Pontiac's War in 1763,[71] in which a series of Native attacks on frontier forts occurred, such as that on Fort Miami which effectively brought a nearly half-century long period of European garrisoning at Kekionga to an end. The frontier settlements required the continued deployment of British forces, and the conflict was not fully concluded until 1766.[72]
Beginning from the 1750s and lasting until the 1760s, a smallpox outbreak devastated several Native communities throughout the American Midwest. The outbreak was brought on in part by victorious Native warriors who had fought on the side of the French bringing home prizes of war which had been infected with the disease; the Ojibwe, Odawa and Potawatomi peoples were most affected by the outbreak. An oral account from Odawa tribal leader and historian Andrew Blackbird claimed that the outbreak had "entirely depopulated and laid waste" to Waganagisi, a large Odawa settlement.[73][74]
The war in North America, along with the global Seven Years' War, officially ended with the signing of the Treaty of Paris on 10 February 1763, by the kingdoms of Great Britain, France and Spain, with Portugal in agreement. The British offered France the choice of surrendering either its continental North American possessions east of the Mississippi or the Caribbean islands of Guadeloupe and Martinique, which had been occupied by the British. France chose to cede the former but was able to negotiate the retention of Saint Pierre and Miquelon, two small islands in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, along with fishing rights in the area. They viewed the economic value of the Caribbean islands' sugar cane to be greater and easier to defend than the furs from the continent. French philosopher Voltaire referred to Canada disparagingly as nothing more than a few acres of snow. The British, however, were happy to take New France, as defence of their North American colonies would no longer be an issue (though the absence of that threat caused many colonists to conclude they no longer needed British protection). Britain also had ample places from which to obtain sugar. Spain traded Florida to Britain in order to regain Cuba, but they also gained Louisiana from France, including New Orleans, in compensation for their losses. Great Britain and Spain also agreed that navigation on the Mississippi River was to be open to vessels of all nations.[75]
Consequences
The war changed economic, political, governmental, and social relations among the three European powers, their colonies, and the people who inhabited those territories. France and Britain both suffered financially because of the war, with significant long-term consequences.
Britain gained control of
The Quebec Act of 1774 addressed issues brought forth by Roman Catholic French Canadians from the 1763 proclamation, and it transferred the Indian Reserve into the Province of Quebec. The Act maintained French Civil law, including the seigneurial system, a medieval code removed from France within a generation by the French Revolution. The Quebec Act was a major concern for the largely Protestant Thirteen Colonies over the advance of "popery". It is typically associated with other Intolerable Acts, legislation that eventually led to the American Revolutionary War. The Quebec Act served as the constitutional document for the Province of Quebec until it was superseded by the Constitutional Act 1791.
The Seven Years' War nearly doubled Great Britain's national debt. The Crown sought sources of revenue to pay it off and attempted to impose new taxes on its colonies. These attempts were met with increasingly stiff resistance, until troops were called in to enforce the Crown's authority, and they ultimately led to the start of the
The elimination of French power in America meant the disappearance of a strong ally for some Indian tribes.[82] The Ohio Country was now more available to colonial settlement due to the construction of military roads by Braddock and Forbes.[83] The Spanish takeover of the Louisiana territory was not completed until 1769, and it had modest repercussions. The British takeover of Spanish Florida resulted in the westward migration of Indian tribes who did not want to do business with them. This migration also caused a rise in tensions between the Choctaw and the Creek, historic enemies who were competing for land.[84] The change of control in Florida also prompted most of its Spanish Catholic population to leave. Most went to Cuba, although some Christianized Yamasee were resettled to the coast of Mexico.[85]
France returned to America in 1778 with the establishment of a Franco-American alliance against Great Britain in the American Revolutionary War, in what historian Alfred A. Cave describes as French "revenge for Montcalm's death".[86]
See also
- American Indian Wars
- Colonial American military history
- French and Indian Wars
- Military history of Canada
- Military history of Nova Scotia
- Military history of the Acadians
- Military history of the Mi'kmaq
- Troupes coloniales#List of regiments in New France 1755–59
Footnotes
- ^ Brumwell, pp. 26–31, documents the starting sizes of the expeditions against Louisbourg, Carillon, Duquesne, and West Indies.
- ^ Brumwell, pp. 24–25.
- ISBN 978-0786474707, p 122
- ^ Gary Walton; History of the American Economy; page 27
- ^ "French and Indian War". American History USA. Retrieved July 7, 2021.
- ^ M. Brook Taylor, Canadian History: a Reader's Guide: Volume 1: Beginnings to Confederation (1994) pp 39–48, 72–74
- ^ a b "Seven Years' War". The Canadian Encyclopedia. Retrieved October 7, 2019.: 1756–1763
- ^ "The Siege of Quebec: An episode of the Seven Years' War", Canadian National Battlefields Commission, Plains of Abraham website
- ISBN 978-3-319-30664-3.
- ^ Peyser. Jacques Legardeur de Saint-Pierre: Officer, Gentleman, Entrepreneur. Michigan State University Press. p. 221.
- ^ Eccles, France in America, p. 185
- ^ a b c Anderson (2000), p. 747.
- ^ Jennings, p. xv.
- ISBN 978-1-4426-9924-3.
- ISBN 0816046581.
- ^ John Wade, "British History Chronologically Arranged, 2: Comprehending a Chamfied Analysis of Events and Occurencis in Church and State ... from the First Invasions by the Romans to A.d. 1847", p.46 [1]
- ISBN 9780415964869.
- ^ Jennings, pp. 9, 176
- ^ Anderson (2000), p. 23
- ^ Bleiweis, Sam (2013). "The Downfall of the Iroquios" (PDF). Emory Endeavors in World History. 5: 84–99. Archived (PDF) from the original on October 9, 2022.
- ^ Jennings, p. 8
- OCLC 9973993536. Retrieved March 29, 2024.
- JSTOR 30151286.
- ^ a b c Anderson (2000), p. 26.
- ^ a b Fowler, p. 14.
- ^ a b "Park Spotlight: Lake Loramie" Archived 2013-10-17 at the Wayback Machine, Ohio State Parks Magazine, Spring 2006
- ^ Fowler, p. 15.
- ^ Alfred P. James, The Ohio Company: Its Inner History (1959) pp. 26–40
- ^ Jennings, p. 15
- ^ Jennings, p. 18
- ^ Anderson (2000), p. 28
- ^ Anderson (2000), p. 27
- ^ Fowler, p. 31.
- ^ O'Meara, p. 48
- ^ Anderson (2000), pp. 42–43
- ^ Anderson (2000), p. 43
- ^ Jennings, p. 63
- ^ Fowler, p. 35.
- ^ Ellis, His Excellency George Washington, p. 5.
- ^ Fowler, p. 36.
- ^ O'Meara, pp. 37–38.
- ^ O'Meara, p. 41
- ^ O'Meara, pp. 43–45
- ^ Jennings, p. 65
- ^ Anderson (2000), p. 50
- ISBN 9780307425393.
- ^ Anderson (2000), pp. 51–59.
- ^ Anderson (2000), pp. 59–65.
- ^ Fowler, p. 52.
- ^ Lengel p. 52.
- ^ O'Meara, p. 113.
- ^ Fowler, pp. 74–75.
- ^ a b Fowler, p. 98.
- ^ a b "The Battle of the Monongahela". World Digital Library. 1755. Retrieved August 3, 2013.
- ^ O'Meara, pp. 110–111.
- ^ O'Meara, p. 163.
- ^ An act for the speedy and effectual recruiting of his Majesty's land forces and marines., p.318
- ^ An act to enable his Majesty to grant commissions to a certain number of foreign Protestants who have served abroad as officers, or engineers, to act and rank as officers, or engineers, in America only, under certain restrictions and qualifications., p.331
- ^ An act for the better supply of mariners and seamen to serve in his Majesty's ships of war, and on board merchant ships, and other trading ships and vessels., p.370
- ^ An act for extending (the Navy Act 1748, 22 Geo. 2 c. 33) (for amending, explaining, and reducing into one act of parliament the laws relating to the government of his Majesty's ships, vessels and forces by sea) to such officers, seamen, and others, as shall serve on board his Majesty's ships or vessels employed upon the lakes, great waters, or rivers, in North America., p.457
- ^ An act for the encouragement of seamen, and the more effectual manning of his Majesty's navy. p.481
- ISBN 0802005535.
- ^ Nester, pp. 53–61
- ^ Fowler, p. 138.
- ^ Fowler, p. 139.
- ISBN 0375406425.
- ^ William, Wood, The Great Fortress: A Chronicle of Louisbourg 1720–1760 ([2] Online from Project Gutenberg)
- ^ Anderson (2000), p. 498
- ^ Cave, p. 21
- ^ "Treaty of Paris February 10, 1763". FrenchandIndianWar.info. Retrieved January 21, 2015.
- ^ Jennings, p. 439
- ^ Anderson (2000), pp. 617–632
- ISBN 978-1-61186-050-4.
- ISBN 978-0-7734-5220-6.
- ^ Anderson (2000), pp. 505–506
- ^ Calloway, pp. 161–164
- ^ Anderson (2000), pp. 565–566
- ^ Anderson (2000), pp. 636–637
- ^ Anderson (2000), p. 568
- ^ Anderson, Fred. "The Real First World War and the Making of America Archived 2010-01-31 at the Wayback Machine" American Heritage, November/December 2005.
- ^ Cave, p. 52
- ^ a b Cave, p. xii
- ^ Anderson (2000), p. 525
- ^ Calloway, pp. 133–138
- ^ Calloway, pp. 152–156
- ^ Cave, p. 82
Bibliography
- Anderson, Fred (2000). Crucible of War: The Seven Years' War and the Fate of Empire in British North America, 1754–1766. New York: Knopf. ISBN 978-0-375-40642-3.
- Anderson, Fred (2005). The War that Made America: A Short History of the French and Indian War. New York: Viking. ISBN 978-0-670-03454-3. – Released in conjunction with the 2006 PBS miniseries The War that Made America.
- Brumwell, Stephen (2006). Redcoats: The British Soldier and War in the Americas, 1755–1763. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-67538-3.
- Calloway, Colin G (2006). The Scratch of a Pen: 1763 and the Transformation of North America. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-530071-0.
- Cave, Alfred A. (2004). The French and Indian War. Westport, Connecticut - London: Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0-313-32168-9.
- ISBN 0-553-26488-5. Second volume in a series of historical narratives, with emphasis on Sir William Johnson. Academic historians often regard Eckert's books, which are written in the style of novels, to be unreliable, as they contain things like dialogue that is clearly fictional.
- ISBN 978-1-4000-3253-2.
- ISBN 978-0-8027-1411-4.
- Gipson, Lawrence H. The Great War for the Empire: The Years of Defeat, 1754–1757 (1948); The Great War for the Empire: The Victorious Years, 1758–1760 (1950) highly detailed narrative of the British war in North America and Europe.
- Jacobs, Wilbur R. Diplomacy and Indian Gifts: Anglo-French Rivalry Along the Ohio and Northwest Frontiers, 1748–1763 (1949) excerpt
- ISBN 978-0-393-30640-8.
- Murrin, John M. (1973). "The French and Indian War, the American Revolution, and the Counterfactual Hypothesis: Reflections on Lawrence Henry Gipson and John Shy". Reviews in American History. 1 (3): 307–318. JSTOR 2701135.
- Nester, William R (2000). The first global war: Britain, France, and the fate of North America, 1756–1775. Westport, CT: Praeger. OCLC 41468552.
- Nester, William R. The French and Indian War and the Conquest of New France (2015). excerpt
- O'Meara, Walter (1965). Guns at the Forks. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0-8229-5309-8.
- ISBN 0-306-81077-8.
- West, Doug (2016) French and Indian War – A Short History 30 Minute Book Series
- "Virtual Vault". Library and Archives Canada.
External links
- The French and Indian War Website
- Map of French and Indian War. French and British forts and settlements, Indian tribes.
- French and Indian War Profile and Videos – Chickasaw.TV
- The War That Made America from PBS
- FORGOTTEN WAR: Struggle for North America from PBS
- Seven Years' War timeline
- Montcalm and Wolfe, by Francis Parkman at Gutenberg
- Animated Map of the French and Indian War developed by HistoryAnimated.com