French art

French art consists of the

Romanesque and Gothic architecture flourished in medieval France with Gothic architecture originating from the Île-de-France and Picardy regions of northern France.^[1][2] During the Renaissance led to Italy becoming the main source of stylistic developments until France matched Italy's influence during the Rococo and Neoclassicism periods^{[citation needed]} During the 19th century and up to mid-20 century France and especially Paris was considered the center of the art world with art styles such as Impressionism, Post-Impressionism, Cubism, Fauvism originating there as well as movements and congregations of foreign artists such as the École de Paris.^{[3][4][5][6][7][8]}

Historic overview

Prehistory

Currently, the earliest known European art is from the

In the

In France from the Neolithic to the

For more on Prehistoric sites in Western France, see Prehistory of Brittany.

Celtic and Roman periods

From the

Celtic art is very ornamental, avoiding straight lines and only occasionally using symmetry, without the imitation of nature nor ideal of beauty central to the classical tradition, but apparently, often involves complex symbolism. This artwork includes a variety of styles and often incorporates subtly modified elements from other cultures, an example being the characteristic over-and-under interlacing which arrived in France only in the sixth century, although it was already used by Germanic artists. The Celtic Vix grave in present-day Burgundy revealed the largest bronze crater of the Antiquity, that was probably imported by Celtic aristocrats from Greece.

The region of Gaul (

Carolingian art is the approximate 120-year period from 750 to 900—during the reign of

Romanesque art

Gothic art and architecture were products of a Medieval art movement that lasted about three hundred years. It began in France, developing from the Romanesque period in the mid-twelfth century. By the late fourteenth century, it had evolved toward a more secular and natural style known as, International Gothic, which continued until the late fifteenth century, when it evolved further, into Renaissance art. The primary Gothic art media were sculpture, panel painting, stained glass, fresco, and illuminated manuscript.

Gothic architecture was born in the middle of the twelfth century in

The designations of styles in French Gothic architecture are as follows: Early Gothic, High Gothic, Rayonnant, and Late Gothic or Flamboyant. Division into these divisions is effective, but debatable. Because Gothic cathedrals were built over several successive periods, and the artisans of each period not necessarily following the wishes of previous periods, the dominant architectural style often changed during the building of a particular building. Consequently, it is difficult to declare one building as belonging to certain era of Gothic architecture. It is more useful to use the terms as descriptors for specific elements within a structure, rather than applying it to the building as a whole.

The French ideas spread. Gothic sculpture evolved from the early stiff and elongated style, still partly Romanesque, into a spatial and naturalistic treatment in the late twelfth and early thirteenth century. Influences from surviving ancient Greek and Roman sculptures were incorporated into the treatment of drapery, facial expression, and pose of the Dutch-Burgundian sculptor, Claus Sluter, and the taste for naturalism first signaled the end of Gothic sculpture, evolving into the classicistic Renaissance style by the end of the fifteenth century.

Paris, at the time the largest city in the Western world, became a leading center for the production of luxurious artifacts in the 13th and 14th century, especially little ivory sculptures and ivory caskets with scenes of courtly love (like Casket with Scenes of Romances in the Walters Art Museum). Paris also developped in one of the most exuberant centre for the production of jewellery and precious reliquaries, like the Holy Thorn Reliquary made for Jean, duke of Berry or the Goldenes Rössl of Altötting, made for Charles VI, king of France.

Painting in a style that may be called, "Gothic," did not appear until about 1200, nearly fifty years after the start of Gothic architecture and sculpture. The transition from Romanesque to Gothic is very imprecise and by no means clearly delineated, but one may see the beginning of a style that is more somber, dark, and emotional than the previous period. This transition occurs first in England and France around 1200, in Germany around 1220, and in Italy around 1300. Painting, the representation of images on a surface, was practiced during the Gothic period in four primary crafts,

Northern France was also the main European center for illuminated manuscripts production. Illuminated manuscripts represent the most complete record of Gothic painting, providing a record of styles in places where no monumental works have otherwise survived. The earliest full manuscripts with French Gothic illustrations date to the middle of the 13th century.^[9] Many such illuminated manuscripts were royal bibles, although psalters also included illustrations; the Parisian Psalter of Saint Louis, dating from 1253 to 1270, features 78 full-page illuminations in tempera paint and gold leaf.^[10]

Iluluminated manuscirpts flourished especially in the 15th century, thanks to the many ducals courts that rose to power in France at the time. In the 15th century, these precious painted books were usually made by Flemish painters from the Burgundian Netherlands (then under the French rule of the dukes of Burgundy) or French painters in the service of the main princely courts (the king's court in Paris, but also the ducal courts of Burgundy, Anjou, Berry, Bourbon, Orléans and Brittany). The king of Sicily and duke of Anjou, René was himself a writer of courtly love novels and asked the best artists to decorate his own writings with elaborate paintings, like the Livre du cœur d'Amour épris illuminated by Barthélémy d'Eyck. The Limbourg brothers were responsible for the Très riches heures du duc de Berry, considered the masterpiece of International gothic manuscripts, made for the Duke of Berry, king Charles V's brother.

Early Modern period

In the late fifteenth century, the French invasion of Italy and the proximity of the vibrant Burgundy court, with its Flemish connections, brought the French into contact with the goods, paintings, and the creative spirit of the Northern and Italian Renaissance. Initial artistic changes at that time in France were executed by Italian and Flemish artists, such as Jean Clouet and his son François Clouet, along with the Italians, Rosso Fiorentino, Francesco Primaticcio, and Niccolò dell'Abbate of what is often called the first School of Fontainebleau from 1531. Leonardo da Vinci also was invited to France by François I, but other than the paintings which he brought with him, he produced little for the French king.

The art of the period from François I through Henri IV often is heavily inspired by late Italian pictorial and sculptural developments commonly referred to as

Some important French architects who adopted the Renaissance style are Pierre Lescot, who rebuilt a part of the Louvre palace for the king, Philibert Delorme, Jean Bullant and Jacques I Androuet du Cerceau.

Sculpture had a great development in France during the Renaissance and has been better preserved than painting. Though Francesco Laurana worked in France for a shorte period of time in the late 15th century, it is only in the beginning of the 16th century that the Italian style became prevalent in France, after the Italian Wars started. In sculpture, the arrival of the Giusto family, who followed Louis XII in France in 1504 was instrumental. Later, another major Italian sculptor who was employed at the court was Benvenuto Cellini, who worked for François Ier from 1540, and imported the Mannerist style to France (one example being the Nymph of Fontainebleau). Major French sculptors or the time are Michel Colombe, responsible for the Tomb of Francis II, Duke of Brittany in Nantes, who had the opportunity to work along the Giusto brothers. Along with Colombe, Jean Goujon and Germain Pilon are considered the best French sculptors of the period, working in an elaborate Mannerist style. Another important figure of the time is Pierre Bontemps. The Champagne region around Troyes but also the Loire valley and Normandy were important regional centres for sculpture. In the Duchy of Lorraine and Bar, a regional but very talented figure appeared in the person of Ligier Richier.

Baroque and Classicism

The seventeenth century marked a golden age for French art in all fields. In the early part of the seventeenth century, late

Many young French painters of the beginning of the century went to Rome to train themselves and soon assimilated Caravaggio's influence like Valentin de Boulogne and Simon Vouet. The later is credited with bringing the baroque in France and at his return in Paris in 1627 he was named first painter of the king. But French painting soon departed from the extravagance and naturalism of the Italian baroque and painters like Eustache Le Sueur and Laurent de La Hyre, following Poussin example developed a classicist way known as Parisian Atticism, inspired by Antiquity, and focusing on proportion, harmony and the importance of drawing. Even Vouet, after his return from Italy, changed his manner to a more measured but still highly decorative and elegant style.

But at the same time there was still a strong

sect.

In architecture, architects like

palazzo. Many aristocratic castles were rebuilt in the new classic-baroque style, some of the most famous being Maisons and Cheverny

, characterized by high roofs "à la française" and a form that retained the medieval model of the castle adorned with prominent towers.

From the mid to late seventeenth century, French art is more often referred to by the term "Classicism" which implies an adherence to certain rules of proportion and sobriety uncharacteristic of the Baroque, as it was practiced in most of the rest of Europe during the same period. Under

French garden

that from Versailles spread in all of Europe.

For sculpture Louis XIV's reign also proved an important moment thanks to the King's protection of artists like

Pierre Legros

, working in a more baroque manner, was one of the most influential sculptors of the end of the century.

Rococo and Neoclassicism

Main article: 18th-century French art

Louis XIV in 1715 lead to a period of freedom commonly called the Régence. Versailles was abandoned from 1715 to 1722, the young king Louis XV and the government led by the duke of Orléans residing in Paris. There a new style emerged in the decorative arts, known as rocaille : the asymmetry and dynamism of the baroque was kept but renewed in a style that is less rhetoric and with less pompous effects, a deeper research of artificiality and use of motifs inspired by nature. This manner used to decorate rooms and furniture also existed in painting. Rocaillle painting turned toward lighters subjects, like the "fêtes galantes", theater settings, pleasant mythological narratives and the female nude. Most of the times the moralising sides of myths or history paintings are omitted and the accent is put on the decorative and pleasant aspect of the scenes depicted. Paintings from the period show an emphasis more on color than drawing, with apparent brush strokes and very colorful scenes. Important French painters from this period include Antoine Watteau, considered the inventor of the fête galante, Nicolas Lancret and François Boucher, known for his gentle pastoral and galant scenes. Pastel portrait painting became particularly fashionable in Europe at the time and France was the major center of activity for pastellists, with the prominent figures of Maurice Quentin de La Tour, Jean-Baptiste Perronneau and the Swiss Jean-Étienne Liotard

.

The

Place de la Bourse in Bordeaux by Ange-Jacques Gabriel

The most prominent architects of the first half of the century were, apart Boffrand,

place de la Bourse in Bordeaux

in a style consciously inspired by that of the era of Louis XIV. During the first half of the century, France replaced Italy as the artistic centre and main artistic influence in Europe and many French artists worked in other courts across the continent.

The latter half of the eighteenth century continued to see French preeminence in Europe, particularly through the arts and sciences, and the speaking the

landscape, portrait, and still life were extremely fashionable. Chardin and Jean-Baptiste Oudry

were hailed for their still lives although this was officially considered the lowest of all genres in the hierarchy of painting subjects.

One also finds in this period a Pre-romanticist aspect.

Claude Joseph Vernet. So too the change from the rational and geometrical French garden of André Le Nôtre

to the English garden, which emphasized artificially wild and irrational nature. One also finds in some of these gardens—curious ruins of temples—called "follies".

The last half of the eighteenth century saw a turn to

Élisabeth Louise Vigée Le Brun

. Neoclassicism also penetrated decorative arts and architecture.

Architects like

Enlightment

thinkers.

Modern period

19th century

Main article: 19th-century French art

The

Camille Corot

tried to escape the conventional and idealized form of landscape painting influenced by classicism to be more realist and sensible to atmospheric variations at the same time.

Romantic tendencies continued throughout the century, both idealized landscape painting and

Barbizon school are logical developments from it, as is the late nineteenth century Symbolism of such painters as Gustave Moreau, the professor of Henri Matisse and Georges Rouault, as well as Odilon Redon

.

William Bouguereau and Alexandre Cabanel

painted historical scenes inspired by the antique, following the footsteps of Ingres and the neoclassics. Though criticized for their conventionalism by the young avant-garde painters and critics, the most talented of the Academic painters renewed the historical genre, drawing inspiration from multiple cultures and techniques, like the Orient and the new framings made possible by the invention of photography

For many critics

Barbizon school one step farther, rejecting once and for all a belabored style and the use of mixed colors and black, for fragile transitive effects of light as captured outdoors in changing light (partly inspired by the paintings of J. M. W. Turner and Eugène Boudin). It led to Claude Monet with his cathedrals and haystacks, Pierre-Auguste Renoir with both his early outdoor festivals and his later feathery style of ruddy nudes, Edgar Degas with his dancers and bathers. Other important impressionists were Alfred Sisley, Camille Pissarro and Gustave Caillebotte

.

After that threshold was crossed, the next thirty years became a litany of amazing experiments.

Les Nabis, a movement of the 1890s, regrouping painters such as Paul Sérusier, Pierre Bonnard, Édouard Vuillard and Maurice Denis

, was influenced by Gauguin's example in Brittany: they explored a decorative art in flat plains with the graphic approach of a Japanese print. They preached that a work of art is the end product and the visual expression of an artist's synthesis of nature in personal aesthetic metaphors and symbols. Henri Rousseau, the self-taught dabbling postmaster, became the model for the naïve revolution.

20th century

Main article: 20th-century French art

The early years of the twentieth century were dominated by experiments in colour and content that Impressionism and Post-Impressionism had unleashed. The products of the far east also brought new influences. At roughly the same time, Les Fauves (Henri Matisse, André Derain, Maurice de Vlaminck, Albert Marquet, Raoul Dufy, Othon Friesz, Charles Camoin, Henri Manguin) exploded into color, much like German Expressionism.

The discovery of African tribal masks by Pablo Picasso, a Spaniard living in Paris, lead him to create his Les Demoiselles d'Avignon of 1907. Working independently, Picasso and Georges Braque returned to and refined Cézanne's way of rationally comprehension of objects in a flat medium, their experiments in cubism also would lead them to integrate all aspects and objects of day-to-day life, collage of newspapers, musical instruments, cigarettes, wine, and other objects into their works. Cubism in all its phases would dominate paintings of Europe and America for the next ten years. (See the article on Cubism for a complete discussion.)

World War I did not stop the dynamic creation of art in France. In 1916 a group of discontents met in a bar in Zurich, the Cabaret Voltaire, and created the most radical gesture possible, the anti-art of Dada. At the same time, Francis Picabia and Marcel Duchamp were exploring similar notions. At a 1917 art show in New York, Duchamp presented a white porcelain urinal (Fountain) signed R. Mutt as work of art, becoming the father of the readymade.

When

Frottage, collage, and decalcomania

, the rendering of mysterious landscapes and dreamed images were to become the key techniques through the rest of the 1930s.

Immediately after this war the French art scene diverged roughly in two directions. There were those who continued in the artistic experiments from before the war, especially surrealism, and others who adopted the new

L'art informel. Parallel to both of these tendencies, Jean Dubuffet

dominated the early post-war years while exploring childlike drawings, graffiti, and cartoons in a variety of media.

École de Paris

Main article: School of Paris

Between the two world wars, an art movement known as the

Expressionist Art. It included many foreign and French artists, many of whom were Jewish; these artists were primarily centered in Montparnasse. ^[11] These Jewish artists played a significant role in the École de Paris, several had sought refuge in Paris from Eastern Europe escaping persecution and pogroms.^[12] Prominent figures like Marc Chagall, Jules Pascin, Chaïm Soutine, Isaac Frenkel Frenel, Amedeo Modigliani, and Abraham Mintchine were among notable contributors to the movement in France and abroad.^[13][14][15] These artists often depicted Jewish themes in their work, imbuing it with intense emotional tones.^[16]

The term "l’École de Paris," coined in 1925 to counter xenophobia, acknowledged the foreign, often Jewish, artists. However, the Nazi occupation led to the tragic loss of Jewish artists during the Holocaust, resulting in the decline of the School of Paris as some artists left or fled to Israel or the United States.^{[17][18][19][20]}

Post War

The late 1950s and early 1960s in France saw art forms that might be considered

Op-Art by designing sophisticated optical patterns. Artists of the Fluxus movement such as Ben Vautier incorporated graffiti and found objects into their work. Niki de Saint Phalle created bloated and vibrant plastic figures. Arman gathered together found objects in boxed or resin-coated assemblages, and César Baldaccini produced a series of large compressed object-sculptures. César Baldaccini was a prominent French sculptor of the 1960s, who created large waste sculptures by compressing discarded materials like automobiles, metal, rubbish, and domestic objects.^[21]

In May 1968, the radical youth movement, through their atelier populaire, produced a great deal of poster-art protesting the moribund policies of president Charles de Gaulle.

Many contemporary artists continue to be haunted by the horrors of the Second World War and the specter of the Holocaust. Christian Boltanski's harrowing installations of the lost and the anonymous are particularly powerful.

French and Western Art museums of France

In Paris

Musée du Louvre

• Musée du Louvre
• Musée d'Orsay
• Musée National d'Art Moderne
• Musée de Cluny
• Musée d'Art Moderne de la Ville de Paris
• Petit Palais
• Musée Picasso
• Musée Rodin
• Musée de l'Orangerie
• Musée Zadkine
• Musée Maillol
• Musée Bourdelle
• Musée Gustave Moreau
• Musée Jacquemart-André
• Musée national Eugène Delacroix
• Musée national Jean-Jacques Henner
• Musée Marmottan Monet
• Musée des Arts Décoratifs, Paris
• Musée Nissim de Camondo
• Musée Cognacq-Jay
• Musée Carnavalet

Near Paris

• Musée Condé in Chantilly
• Musée des Beaux-Arts de Chartres in Chartres
• Musée de la Renaissance in Écouen
• Musée d'archéologie nationale in Saint-Germain-en-Laye
• Musée départemental Maurice Denis "The Priory" in Saint-Germain-en-Laye
• Senlis
• Sèvres - Musée de la céramique in Sèvres

Outside Paris

Musée des beaux-arts de Lyon

Musée de l’Œuvre Notre-Dame

(on the right)

Major museums

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(alphabetically by city)

• Musée Faure in Aix-les-Bains
• Musée Granet in Aix-en-Provence
• Musée Toulouse-Lautrec in Albi
• Musée de Picardie in Amiens
• Musée de l'Arles et de la Provence antiques in Arles
• Musée du Petit Palais in Avignon
• Fondation Calvet in Avignon
• Musée Albert-André in Bagnols-sur-Cèze
• Musée Bonnat in Bayonne
• Musée des Beaux-Arts et d'archéologie de Besançon in Besançon
• Musée Fernand Léger in Biot, Alpes-Maritimes
• Musée des beaux-arts de Bordeaux in Bordeaux
• Musée des Beaux-Arts de Caen in Caen
• Goya Museum in Castres
• Musée d'Art Moderne de Céret in Céret
• Musée d'art Roger-Quilliot in Clermont-Ferrand
• Unterlinden Museum in Colmar
• Musée des Beaux-Arts de Dijon in Dijon
• Musée départemental d'Art ancien et contemporain in Épinal
• Jacquemart-André museum in Fontaine-Chaalis
• Musée de Grenoble in Grenoble
• Grenoble Archaeological Museum in Grenoble
• Musée Matisse in Le Cateau-Cambrésis
• Musée des Beaux-Arts André-Malraux in Le Havre
• Palais des Beaux-Arts de Lille in Lille
• Musée des beaux-arts de Lyon in Lyon
• Musée gallo-romain
  in Lyon
• Musée des beaux-arts de Marseille in Marseille
• Musée Cantini in Marseille
• Museums of Metz in Metz
• Centre Pompidou-Metz in Metz
• Musée Ingres in Montauban
• Musée Fabre in Montpellier
• Château de Montsoreau-Museum of Contemporary Art in Montsoreau
• Musée des Beaux-Arts de Nancy in Nancy
• Musée de l'École de Nancy in Nancy
• Musée Lorrain in Nancy
• Musée des Beaux-Arts de Nantes in Nantes
• Musée des Beaux-Arts in Nice
• Musée national Message Biblique Marc Chagall in Nice
• Musée archéologique de Nîmes in Nîmes
• Musée Camille Claudel in Nogent-sur-Seine
• Musée des Beaux-Arts de Reims in Reims
• Palais du Tau in Reims
• Musée des Beaux-Arts de Rennes in Rennes
• Musée des Beaux-Arts de Rouen in Rouen
• Musée d'art moderne de Saint-Étienne in Saint-Étienne
• Saint-Paul, Alpes-Maritimes
• Musée des Beaux-Arts de Strasbourg in Strasbourg
• Musée d'art moderne et contemporain of Strasbourg
  in Strasbourg
• Musée de l’Œuvre Notre-Dame
  in Strasbourg
• Musée des Arts décoratifs, Strasbourg in Strasbourg
• Musée des Augustins in Toulouse
• Musée Saint-Raymond in Toulouse
• Fondation Bemberg
  in Toulouse

Other museums

(alphabetically by city)

• Musée des Beaux-Arts de Brest in Brest
• Musée Théodore Deck et des pays du Florival in Guebwiller
• Musée historique de Haguenau in Haguenau
• Musée Eugène Boudin in Honfleur
• Musée Crozatier in Le Puy-en-Velay
• Musée des Beaux-Arts de Libourne in Libourne
• Musée Girodet in Montargis
• Musée des Beaux-Arts de Mulhouse in Mulhouse
• Musée des Beaux-Arts de Nîmes in Nîmes
• Musée des Beaux-Arts de Pau in Pau
• Musée Hyacinthe Rigaud in Perpignan
• Musée des Beaux-Arts de Pont-Aven in Pont-Aven
• La Piscine Museum in Roubaix
• Musée Paul-Dupuy in Toulouse
• Musée des Beaux-Arts de Valenciennes in Valenciennes

Textile and tapestry museums

(alphabetically by city)

• Musée des tapisseries in Aix-en-Provence
• Château d'Angers in Angers
• Musée de la tapisserie de Bayeux in Bayeux
• Musée des Tissus et des Arts décoratifs in Lyon
• Musée de l'impression sur étoffes in Mulhouse
• Musée Galliera in Paris
• Gobelins Manufactory in Paris
• Musée du papier peint in Rixheim

Vocabulary

French words and expressions dealing with the arts:

• peintre — painter
  • peinture à l'huile — oil painting
• tableau — painting
• toile — canvas
• gravure — print
• dessin — drawing
• aquarelle —
  watercolor
• croquis — sketch
• ébauche — draft
• crayon — pencil
• paysage —
  landscape
• nature morte — still life
• la peinture d'histoire — History painting, see Hierarchy of genres
• tapisserie – tapestry
• vitrail – stained glass

See also

• List of French artists
• For information about French literature, see: French literature
• For information about French history, see: History of France
• For other topics on French culture, see:
  French culture

References and further reading

• ISBN 0-300-05314-2
  .
• André Chastel. French Art Vol I: Prehistory to the Middle Ages.
  ISBN 2-08-013566-X
  .
• André Chastel. French Art Vol II: The Renaissance.
  ISBN 2-08-013583-X
  .
• André Chastel. French Art Vol III: The Ancient Régime.
  ISBN 2-08-013617-8
  .
• French Art at the Saint Louis Art Museum

Specific

1. ^ carolinarh (2015-10-10). "French Romanesque I: Architecture". The Artistic Adventure of Mankind. Retrieved 2023-12-30.
2. ISBN 978-0-470-99699-7.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link
   )
3. ^ Tate. "Impressionism". Tate. Retrieved 2023-12-30.
4. ^ "School of Paris". www.nationalgalleries.org. Retrieved 2023-12-30.
5. ^ Rewald, Authors: Sabine. "Fauvism | Essay | The Metropolitan Museum of Art | Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History". The Met’s Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. Retrieved 2023-12-30.
6. ^ Rewald, Authors: Sabine. "Cubism | Essay | The Metropolitan Museum of Art | Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History". The Met’s Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. Retrieved 2023-12-30.
7. JSTOR 1566965
   .
8. ISBN 978-0-674-03864-6
   .
9. ^ Stokstad (2005), 540.
10. ^ Stokstad (2005), 541.
11. ^ "Paris School of Art | Encyclopedia.com". www.encyclopedia.com. Retrieved 2023-11-19.
12. ^ "The Jewish painters of l'École de Paris-from the Holocaust to today". Jews, Europe, the XXIst century. 2021-11-25. Retrieved 2023-11-19. " l'École de Paris is a term coined by the art critic André Warnod in 1925, in the magazine Comœdia, to define the group formed by foreign painters in Paris. The École de Paris does not designate a movement or a school in the academic sense of the term, but a historical fact. In Warnod's mind, this term was intended to counter a latent xenophobia rather than to establish a theoretical approach.
13. ISBN 979-8633355567.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link
    )
14. ^ "Alexandre FRENEL". Bureau d’art Ecole de Paris. 2019-01-02. Retrieved 2023-11-19.
15. ^ "Marc CHAGALL". Bureau d’art Ecole de Paris. 2019-01-02. Retrieved 2023-11-19.
16. ^ Barzel, Amnon (1974). Frenel Isaac Alexander. Israel: Masada. p. 14.
17. ^ "The Jewish painters of l'École de Paris-from the Holocaust to today". Jews, Europe, the XXIst century. 2021-11-25. Retrieved 2023-11-19. " l'École de Paris is a term coined by the art critic André Warnod in 1925, in the magazine Comœdia, to define the group formed by foreign painters in Paris. The École de Paris does not designate a movement or a school in the academic sense of the term, but a historical fact. In Warnod's mind, this term was intended to counter a latent xenophobia rather than to establish a theoretical approach.
18. Times of Israel
    (in French). 6 July 2021.
19. ISBN 979-8633355567.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link
    )
20. ^ "Paris School of Art | Encyclopedia.com". www.encyclopedia.com. Retrieved 2023-11-19.
21. ^ "César Baldaccini: Master of Compression". DailyArt Magazine. 2021-01-11. Retrieved 2021-11-23.