French language
- Acèh
- Адыгэбзэ
- Адыгабзэ
- Afrikaans
- Alemannisch
- አማርኛ
- Anarâškielâ
- अंगिका
- Ænglisc
- Аԥсшәа
- العربية
- Aragonés
- ܐܪܡܝܐ
- Արեւմտահայերէն
- Arpetan
- অসমীয়া
- Asturianu
- अवधी
- Avañe'ẽ
- Авар
- Aymar aru
- Azərbaycanca
- تۆرکجه
- Basa Bali
- Bamanankan
- বাংলা
- Banjar
- 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú
- Башҡортса
- Беларуская
- Беларуская (тарашкевіца)
- भोजपुरी
- Bikol Central
- Български
- Boarisch
- བོད་ཡིག
- Bosanski
- Brezhoneg
- Буряад
- Català
- Чӑвашла
- Cebuano
- Čeština
- ChiShona
- Corsu
- Cymraeg
- Dansk
- الدارجة
- Davvisámegiella
- Deutsch
- ދިވެހިބަސް
- Diné bizaad
- Dolnoserbski
- Eesti
- Ελληνικά
- Emiliàn e rumagnòl
- Эрзянь
- Español
- Esperanto
- Estremeñu
- Euskara
- Eʋegbe
- فارسی
- Fiji Hindi
- Føroyskt
- Français
- Frysk
- Fulfulde
- Furlan
- Gaeilge
- Gaelg
- Gagauz
- Gàidhlig
- Galego
- ГӀалгӀай
- 贛語
- گیلکی
- 𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌹𐍃𐌺
- 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî
- Хальмг
- 한국어
- Hausa
- Hawaiʻi
- Հայերեն
- हिन्दी
- Hornjoserbsce
- Hrvatski
- Ido
- Igbo
- Ilokano
- Bahasa Indonesia
- Interlingua
- Interlingue
- ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ / inuktitut
- Ирон
- IsiXhosa
- IsiZulu
- Íslenska
- Italiano
- עברית
- Jawa
- Kabɩyɛ
- ಕನ್ನಡ
- Kapampangan
- Къарачай-малкъар
- ქართული
- कॉशुर / کٲشُر
- Kaszëbsczi
- Қазақша
- Kernowek
- Ikinyarwanda
- Kiswahili
- Коми
- Kongo
- Kotava
- Kreyòl ayisyen
- Kriyòl gwiyannen
- Kurdî
- Кыргызча
- Ladin
- Ladino
- ລາວ
- Latgaļu
- Latina
- Latviešu
- Lëtzebuergesch
- Лезги
- Lietuvių
- Ligure
- Limburgs
- Lingála
- Lingua Franca Nova
- Livvinkarjala
- La .lojban.
- Lombard
- Magyar
- मैथिली
- Македонски
- Malagasy
- മലയാളം
- Malti
- Māori
- मराठी
- მარგალური
- مصرى
- مازِرونی
- Bahasa Melayu
- ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ
- 閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄
- Мокшень
- Монгол
- မြန်မာဘာသာ
- Nederlands
- Nedersaksies
- Nēhiyawēwin / ᓀᐦᐃᔭᐍᐏᐣ
- नेपाली
- नेपाल भाषा
- 日本語
- Napulitano
- Нохчийн
- Nordfriisk
- Norfuk / Pitkern
- Norsk bokmål
- Norsk nynorsk
- Nouormand
- Novial
- Occitan
- Олык марий
- Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча
- ਪੰਜਾਬੀ
- Pälzisch
- Pangasinan
- پنجابی
- Papiamentu
- پښتو
- Patois
- Перем коми
- ភាសាខ្មែរ
- Picard
- Piemontèis
- Tok Pisin
- Plattdüütsch
- Polski
- Português
- Qaraqalpaqsha
- Qırımtatarca
- Reo tahiti
- Română
- Rumantsch
- Runa Simi
- Русиньскый
- Русский
- Саха тыла
- Gagana Samoa
- संस्कृतम्
- ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ
- Sardu
- Scots
- Seediq
- Seeltersk
- Sesotho
- Sesotho sa Leboa
- Setswana
- Shqip
- Sicilianu
- සිංහල
- Simple English
- سنڌي
- SiSwati
- Slovenčina
- Slovenščina
- Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ
- Ślůnski
- Soomaaliga
- کوردی
- Српски / srpski
- Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски
- Sunda
- Suomi
- Svenska
- Tagalog
- தமிழ்
- Taclḥit
- Taqbaylit
- Tarandíne
- Татарча / tatarça
- తెలుగు
- Tetun
- ไทย
- Тоҷикӣ
- Lea faka-Tonga
- ᏣᎳᎩ
- Tsetsêhestâhese
- ತುಳು
- Türkçe
- Türkmençe
- Tyap
- Тыва дыл
- Удмурт
- Українська
- اردو
- ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche
- Vahcuengh
- Vèneto
- Vepsän kel’
- Tiếng Việt
- Volapük
- Võro
- Walon
- Wayuunaiki
- 文言
- West-Vlams
- Winaray
- Wolof
- 吴语
- ייִדיש
- Yorùbá
- 粵語
- Zazaki
- Zeêuws
- Žemaitėška
- 中文
- Batak Toba
- Batak Mandailing
- Kadazandusun
- Fɔ̀ngbè
- Jaku Iban
- Kumoring
- Tolışi
- ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ
This article should specify the language of its non-English content, using {{lang}}, {{transliteration}} for transliterated languages, and {{IPA}} for phonetic transcriptions, with an appropriate ISO 639 code. Wikipedia's multilingual support templates may also be used. See why. (September 2024) |
French | |
---|---|
français | |
Pronunciation | Francophone Africa, Canada, and other locations in the Francophonie |
Speakers | L1: 74 million (2020)[1] L2: 238 million (2022)[1] Total: 310 million[1] |
Early forms | |
French alphabet) French Braille | |
Signed French (français signé) | |
Official status | |
Official language in | 27 countries 10 subnational Non-official but administrative/cultural
Intergovernmental organizations |
T) | |
ISO 639-3 | fra |
Glottolog | stan1290 |
Linguasphere | 51-AAA-i |
Countries and regions where French is the native language of the majority[a] Countries and territories where French is an official language but not a majority native language
Countries, regions, and territories where French is an administrative or cultural language but with no official status | |
This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA. |
Part of a series on the |
French language |
---|
|
History |
Grammar |
Orthography |
|
Phonology |
French (français
French is an
French is estimated to have about 310 million speakers, of which about 80 million are native speakers.[6] According to the OIF, approximately 321 million people worldwide are "able to speak the language" as of 2022,[7] without specifying the criteria for this estimation or whom it encompasses.[8]
In Francophone Africa, it is spoken mainly as a second language. However it has also become a native language in a number of urban areas, especially in regions like
In 2015, approximately 40% of the Francophone population (including
History
French is a
Vulgar Latin in Gaul
Due to Roman rule, Latin was gradually adopted by the inhabitants of Gaul. As the language was learned by the common people, it developed a distinct local character, with grammatical differences from Latin as spoken elsewhere, some of which is attested in graffiti.
The evolution of Latin in Gaul was shaped by its coexistence for over half a millennium beside the native
The Gaulish language likely survived into the sixth century in France despite considerable
The estimated number of French words that can be attributed to Gaulish is placed at 154 by the Petit Robert,[37] which is often viewed as representing standardized French, while if non-standard dialects are included, the number increases to 240.[38] Known Gaulish loans are skewed toward certain semantic fields, such as plant life (chêne, bille, etc.), animals (mouton, cheval, etc.), nature (boue, etc.), domestic activities (ex. berceau), farming and rural units of measure (arpent, lieue, borne, boisseau), weapons,[39] and products traded regionally rather than further afield.[40] This semantic distribution has been attributed to peasants being the last to hold onto Gaulish.[40][39]
Old French
Up until its later stages,
The earliest evidence of what became Old French can be seen in the
It was during the period of the Crusades in which French became so dominant in the Mediterranean Sea that became a lingua franca ("Frankish language"), and because of increased contact with the Arabs during the Crusades who referred to them as Franj, numerous Arabic loanwords entered French, such as amiral (admiral), alcool (alcohol), coton (cotton) and sirop (syrop), as well as scientific terms such as algébre (algebra), alchimie (alchemy) and zéro (zero).[45]
Middle French
Within Old French many dialects emerged but the Francien dialect is one that not only continued but also thrived during the Middle French period (14th–17th centuries).[41] Modern French grew out of this Francien dialect.[41] Grammatically, during the period of Middle French, noun declensions were lost and there began to be standardized rules. Robert Estienne published the first Latin-French dictionary, which included information about phonetics, etymology, and grammar.[46] Politically, the first government authority to adopt Modern French as official was the Aosta Valley in 1536, while the Ordinance of Villers-Cotterêts (1539) named French the language of law in the Kingdom of France.
Modern French
During the 17th century, French replaced
During the
Near the beginning of the 19th century, the
Geographic distribution
Europe
Spoken by 19.71% of the European Union's population, French is the third most widely spoken language in the EU, after English and German and the second-most-widely taught language after English.[21][54]
Under the Constitution of France, French has been the official language of the Republic since 1992,[55] although the Ordinance of Villers-Cotterêts made it mandatory for legal documents in 1539. France mandates the use of French in official government publications, public education except in specific cases, and legal contracts; advertisements must bear a translation of foreign words.
In Belgium, French is an official language at the federal level along with Dutch and German. At the regional level, French is the sole official language of
French is one of the four official languages of Switzerland, along with German, Italian, and
Along with Luxembourgish and German, French is one of the three official languages of Luxembourg, where it is generally the preferred language of business as well as of the different public administrations. It is also the official language of Monaco.
At a regional level, French is acknowledged as an official language in the Aosta Valley region of Italy where it is the first language of approximately 50% of the population,[58] while French dialects remain spoken by minorities on the Channel Islands. It is also spoken in Andorra and is the main language after Catalan in El Pas de la Casa. The language is taught as the primary second language in the German state of Saarland, with French being taught from pre-school and over 43% of citizens being able to speak French.[59][60]
Africa
The majority of the world's French-speaking population lives in Africa. According to a 2023 estimate from the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie, an estimated 167 million African people spread across 35 countries and territories[b] can speak French as either a first or a second language.[63][64] This number does not include the people living in non-Francophone African countries who have learned French as a foreign language. Due to the rise of French in Africa, the total French-speaking population worldwide is expected to reach 700 million people in 2050.[65] French is the fastest growing language on the continent (in terms of either official or foreign languages).[66][67]
French is increasingly being spoken as a native language in Francophone Africa, especially in regions like Ivory Coast,[9][10] Cameroon,[11][12] Gabon,[13] [14]Madagascar,[15] and the Democratic Republic of Congo.[16][17][18]
There is not a single
Sub-Saharan Africa is the region where the French language is most likely to expand, because of the expansion of education and rapid population growth.[69] It is also where the language has evolved the most in recent years.[70][71] Some vernacular forms of French in Africa can be difficult to understand for French speakers from other countries,[72] but written forms of the language are very closely related to those of the rest of the French-speaking world.
Americas
Canada
French is the second most commonly spoken language in Canada and one of two federal official languages alongside English. As of the 2021 Canadian census, it was the native language of 7.7 million people (21% of the population) and the second language of 2.9 million (8% of the population).[73][74] French is the sole official language in the province of Quebec, where some 80% of the population speak it as a native language and 95% are capable of conducting a conversation in it.[73] Quebec is also home to the city of Montreal, which is the world's fourth-largest French-speaking city, by number of first language speakers.[75][76] New Brunswick and Manitoba are the only officially bilingual provinces, though full bilingualism is enacted only in New Brunswick, where about one third of the population is Francophone. French is also an official language of all of the territories (Northwest Territories, Nunavut, and Yukon). Out of the three, Yukon has the most French speakers, making up just under 4% of the population.[77] Furthermore, while French is not an official language in Ontario, the French Language Services Act ensures that provincial services are available in the language. The Act applies to areas of the province where there are significant Francophone communities, namely Eastern Ontario and Northern Ontario. Elsewhere, sizable French-speaking minorities are found in southern Manitoba, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island and the Port au Port Peninsula in Newfoundland and Labrador, where the unique Newfoundland French dialect was historically spoken. Smaller pockets of French speakers exist in all other provinces. The Ontarian city of Ottawa, the Canadian capital, is also effectively bilingual, as it has a large population of federal government workers, who are required to offer services in both French and English,[78] and is just across the river from the Quebecois city of Gatineau.
United States
According to the
Caribbean
French is one of two official languages in Haiti alongside Haitian Creole. It is the principal language of education, administration, business, and public signage and is spoken by all educated Haitians. It is also used for ceremonial events such as weddings, graduations, and church masses. The vast majority of the population speaks Haitian Creole as their first language; the rest largely speak French as a first language.[82] As a French Creole language, Haitian Creole draws the large majority of its vocabulary from French, with influences from West African languages, as well as several European languages. It is closely related to Louisiana Creole and the creole from the Lesser Antilles.[83]
French is the sole official language of all the overseas territories of France in the Caribbean that are collectively referred to as the French West Indies, namely Guadeloupe, Saint Barthélemy, Saint Martin, and Martinique.
Other territories
French is the official language of both French Guiana on the South American continent,[84] and of Saint Pierre and Miquelon,[85] an archipelago off the coast of Newfoundland in North America.
Asia
Southeast Asia
French was the official language of the colony of French Indochina, comprising modern-day Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia. It continues to be an administrative language in Laos and Cambodia, although its influence has waned in recent decades.[86] In colonial Vietnam, the elites primarily spoke French, while many servants who worked in French households spoke a French pidgin known as "Tây Bồi" (now extinct). After French rule ended, South Vietnam continued to use French in administration, education, and trade.[87] However, since the Fall of Saigon and the opening of a unified Vietnam's economy, French has gradually been effectively displaced as the first foreign language of choice by English in Vietnam. Nevertheless, it continues to be taught as the other main foreign language in the Vietnamese educational system and is regarded as a cultural language.[88] All three countries are full members of La Francophonie (OIF).
India
French was the official language of French India, consisting of the geographically separate enclaves referred to as Puducherry. It continued to be an official language of the territory even after its cession to India in 1956 until 1965.[89] A small number of older locals still retain knowledge of the language, although it has now given way to Tamil and English.[89][90]
Lebanon
A former French
Today, French and English are secondary languages of
Oceania and Australasia
French is an official language of the
In French Polynesia and to a lesser extent Wallis and Futuna, where oral and written knowledge of the French language has become almost universal (95% and 84% respectively), French increasingly tends to displace the native Polynesian languages as the language most spoken at home. In French Polynesia, the percentage of the population who reported that French was the language they use the most at home rose from 67% at the 2007 census to 74% at the 2017 census.[98][96] In Wallis and Futuna, the percentage of the population who reported that French was the language they use the most at home rose from 10% at the 2008 census to 13% at the 2018 census.[97][99]
Future
According to a demographic projection led by the Université Laval and the Réseau Démographie de l'Agence universitaire de la Francophonie, the total number of French speakers will reach approximately 500 million in 2025 and 650 million by 2050, largely due to rapid population growth in sub-Saharan Africa.[100] OIF estimates 700 million French speakers by 2050, 80% of whom will be in Africa.[20]
In a study published in March 2014 by
In the European Union, French was the dominant language within all institutions until the 1990s. After several enlargements of the EU (1995, 2004), French significantly lost ground in favour of English, which is more widely spoken and taught in most EU countries. French currently remains one of the three working languages, or "procedural languages", of the EU, along with English and German. It is the second-most widely used language within EU institutions after English, but remains the preferred language of certain institutions or administrations such as the Court of Justice of the European Union, where it is the sole internal working language, or the Directorate-General for Agriculture. Since 2016, Brexit has rekindled discussions on whether or not French should again hold greater role within the institutions of the European Union.[102]
Varieties
- African French
- Maghreb French(North African French)
- Aostan French
- Belgian French
- Cambodian French
- Canadian French
- Acadian French
- Newfoundland French
- New England French
- Ontario French
- Quebec French
- French French
- Haitian French
- Indian French
- Jersey Legal French
- Lao French
- Louisiana French
- Cajun French
- Missouri French
- South East Asian French
- Swiss French
- Vietnamese French
- West Indian French
Current status and importance
A leading world language, French is taught in universities around the world, and is one of the world's most influential languages because of its wide use in the worlds of journalism, jurisprudence, education, and diplomacy.[103] In diplomacy, French is one of the six official languages of the United Nations (and one of the
Significant as a judicial language, French is one of the official languages of such major international and regional courts, tribunals, and dispute-settlement bodies as the
In 1997, George Weber published, in Language Today, a comprehensive academic study entitled "The World's 10 most influential languages".
Knowledge of French is often considered to be a useful skill by business owners in the United Kingdom; a 2014 study found that 50% of British managers considered French to be a valuable asset for their business, thus ranking French as the most sought-after foreign language there, ahead of German (49%) and Spanish (44%).[111] MIT economist Albert Saiz calculated a 2.3% premium for those who have French as a foreign language in the workplace.[112]
In 2011,
In English-speaking Canada, the United Kingdom, and Ireland, French is the first foreign language taught and in number of pupils is far ahead of other languages. In the United States, French is the second-most commonly taught foreign language in schools and universities, although well behind Spanish. In some areas of the country near French-speaking Quebec, however, it is the foreign language more commonly taught.
Phonology
Labial | Dental/ Alveolar |
Palatal/ Postalveolar |
Velar/ Uvular | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Nasal | m | n
|
ɲ | (ŋ) | |
Stop
|
voiceless | p | t
|
k | |
voiced | b | d
|
ɡ | ||
Fricative
|
voiceless | f | s | ʃ | ʁ |
voiced | v | z | ʒ | ||
Approximant
|
plain | l
|
j | ||
labial | ɥ | w |
Vowel phonemes in French
|
|
Although there are many French regional accents, foreign learners normally use only one variety of the language.
- There are a maximum of 17 vowels in French, not all of which are used in every dialect: /a/, /ɑ/, /e/, /ɛ/, /ɛː/, /ə/, /i/, /o/, /ɔ/, /y/, /u/, /œ/, /ø/, plus the nasalized vowels /ɑ̃/, /ɛ̃/, /ɔ̃/ and /œ̃/. In France, the vowels /ɑ/, /ɛː/ and /œ̃/ are tending to be replaced by /a/, /ɛ/ and /ɛ̃/ in many people's speech, but the distinction of /ɛ̃/ and /œ̃/ is present in Meridional French. In Quebec and Belgian French, the vowels /ɑ/, /ə/, /ɛː/ and /œ̃/ are present.
- Voiced stops (i.e., /b, d, ɡ/) are typically produced fully voiced throughout.
- Voiceless stops (i.e., /p, t, k/) are unaspirated.
- The velar nasal /ŋ/ can occur in final position in borrowed (usually English) words: parking, camping, swing.
- The palatal nasal /ɲ/, which is written ⟨gn⟩, can occur in word initial position (e.g., gnon), but it is most frequently found in intervocalic, onset position or word-finally (e.g., montagne).
- French has three pairs of homorganic fricatives distinguished by voicing, i.e., labiodental /f/~/v/, dental /s/~/z/, and palato-alveolar /ʃ/~/ʒ/. /s/~/z/ are dental, like the plosives /t/~/d/ and the nasal /n/.
- French has one rhotic whose pronunciation varies considerably among speakers and phonetic contexts. In general, it is described as a voiced uvular fricative, as in [ʁu] roue, "wheel". Vowels are often lengthened before this segment. It can be reduced to an approximant, particularly in final position (e.g., fort), or reduced to zero in some word-final positions. For other speakers, a uvular trill is also common, and an apical trill [r] occurs in some dialects. The cluster /ʁw/ is generally pronounced as a labialised voiced uvular fricative [ʁʷ], such as in [ʁʷa] roi, "king", or [kʁʷaʁ] croire, "to believe".
- Lateral and central approximants: The lateral approximant /l/ is unvelarised in both onset (lire) and coda position (il). In the onset, the central approximants [w], [ɥ], and [j] each correspond to a high vowel, /u/, /y/, and /i/ respectively. There are a few minimal pairs where the approximant and corresponding vowel contrast, but there are also many cases where they are in free variation. Contrasts between /j/ and /i/ occur in final position as in /pɛj/ paye, "pay", vs. /pɛi/ pays, "country".
- The lateral approximant /l/ can be delateralised when word- or morpheme-final and preceded by /i/, such as in /tʁavaj/ travail, "work", or when a word ending in ⟨al⟩ is pluralised, giving ⟨aux⟩ /o/.
French pronunciation follows strict rules based on spelling, but French spelling is often based more on history than phonology. The rules for pronunciation vary between dialects, but the standard rules are:
- Final single consonants, in particular s, x, z, t, d, n, p and g, are normally silent. (A consonant is considered "final" when no vowel follows it even if one or more consonants follow it.) The final letters f, k, q, and l, however, are normally pronounced. The final c is sometimes pronounced like in bac, sac, roc but can also be silent like in blanc or estomac. The final r is usually silent when it follows an e in a word of two or more syllables, but it is pronounced in some words (hiver, super, cancer etc.).
- When the following word begins with a vowel, however, a silent consonant may once again be pronounced, to provide a set phraseslike pied-à-terre.
- Doubling a final n and adding a silent e at the end of a word (e.g., chien → chienne) makes it clearly pronounced. Doubling a final l and adding a silent e (e.g., gentil → gentille) adds a [j] sound if the l is preceded by the letter i.
- When the following word begins with a vowel, however, a silent consonant may once again be pronounced, to provide a
- Some monosyllabic function words ending in a or e, such as je and que, drop their final vowel when placed before a word that begins with a vowel sound (thus avoiding a hiatus). The missing vowel is replaced by an apostrophe. (e.g., *je ai is instead pronounced and spelled → j'ai). This gives, for example, the same pronunciation for l'homme qu'il a vu ("the man whom he saw") and l'homme qui l'a vu ("the man who saw him"). However, for Belgian French the sentences are pronounced differently; in the first sentence the syllable break is as "qu'il-a", while the second breaks as "qui-l'a". It can also be noted that, in Quebec French, the second example (l'homme qui l'a vu) is more emphasized on l'a vu.
Writing system
Alphabet
French is written with the 26 letters of the basic Latin script, with four diacritics appearing on vowels (circumflex accent, acute accent, grave accent, diaeresis) and the cedilla appearing in "ç".
There are two
Orthography
French spelling, like English spelling, tends to preserve obsolete pronunciation rules. This is mainly due to extreme phonetic changes since the Old French period, without a corresponding change in spelling. Moreover, some conscious changes were made to restore Latin orthography (as with some English words such as "debt"):
- Old French doit > French doigt "finger" (Latin digitus)
- Old French pie > French pied "foot" [Latin pes (stem: ped-)]
French orthography is
As a result, it can be difficult to predict the spelling of a word based on the sound. Final consonants are generally silent, except when the following word begins with a vowel (see Liaison (French)). For example, the following words end in a vowel sound: pied, aller, les, finit, beaux. The same words followed by a vowel, however, may sound the consonants, as they do in these examples: beaux-arts, les amis, pied-à-terre.
French writing, as with any language, is affected by the spoken language. In Old French, the plural for animal was animals. The /als/ sequence was unstable and was turned into a diphthong /aus/. This change was then reflected in the orthography: animaus. The us ending, very common in Latin, was then abbreviated by copyists (monks) by the letter x, resulting in a written form animax. As the French language further evolved, the pronunciation of au turned into /o/ so that the u was reestablished in orthography for consistency, resulting in modern French animaux (pronounced first /animos/ before the final /s/ was dropped in contemporary French). The same is true for cheval pluralized as chevaux and many others. In addition, castel pl. castels became château pl. châteaux.
- Nasal: n and m. When n or m follows a vowel or diphthong, the n or m becomes silent and causes the preceding vowel to become nasalized (i.e., pronounced with the soft palate extended downward so as to allow part of the air to leave through the nostrils). Exceptions are when the n or m is doubled, or immediately followed by a vowel. The prefixes en- and em- are always nasalized. The rules are more complex than this but may vary between dialects.
- diphthongs, but also specific combinations of vowels, sometimes with following consonants, to show which sound is intended.
- Gemination: Within words, double consonants are generally not pronounced as geminates in modern French (but geminates can be heard in the cinema or TV news from as recently as the 1970s, and in very refined elocution they may still occur). For example, illusion is pronounced [ilyzjɔ̃] and not [ilːyzjɔ̃]. However, gemination does occur between words; for example, une info ("a news item" or "a piece of information") is pronounced [ynɛ̃fo], whereas une nympho ("a nymphomaniac") is pronounced [ynːɛ̃fo].
- Accents are used sometimes for pronunciation, sometimes to distinguish similar words, and sometimes based on etymology alone.
- Accents that affect pronunciation
- The acute accent (l'accent aigu) é (e.g., école—school) means that the vowel is pronounced /e/ instead of the default /ə/.
- The grave accent (l'accent grave) è (e.g., élève—pupil) means that the vowel is pronounced /ɛ/ instead of the default /ə/.
- The circumflex (l'accent circonflexe) ê (e.g. forêt—forest) shows that an e is pronounced /ɛ/ and that an ô is pronounced /o/. In standard French, it also signifies a pronunciation of /ɑ/ for the letter â, but this differentiation is disappearing. In the mid-18th century, the circumflex was used in place of s after a vowel, where that letter s was not pronounced. Thus, forest became forêt, hospital became hôpital, and hostel became hôtel.
- Diaeresis or tréma (ë, ï, ü, ÿ): over e, i, u or y, indicates that a vowel is to be pronounced separately from the preceding one: naïve, Noël.
- The combination of e with diaeresis following o (Noël [ɔɛ]) is nasalized in the regular way if followed by n (Samoëns [wɛ̃])
- The combination of e with diaeresis following a is either pronounced Saint-Saëns [ɑ̃])
- A diaeresis on y only occurs in some proper names and in modern editions of old French texts. Some proper names in which ÿ appears include Aisneand a family name), and Le Blanc de Nicolaÿ (an insurance company in eastern France).
- The diaeresis on u appears in the Biblical proper names Archélaüs, Capharnaüm, Emmaüs, Ésaü, and Saül, as well as French names such as Haüy. Nevertheless, since the 1990 orthographic changes, the diaeresis in words containing guë (such as aiguë or ciguë) may be moved onto the u: aigüe, cigüe, and by analogy may be used in verbs such as j'argüe.
- In addition, words coming from German retain their umlaut (ä, ö and ü) if applicable but use often French pronunciation, such as Kärcher (trademark of a pressure washer).
- The cedilla (la cédille) ç (e.g., garçon—boy) means that the letter ç is pronounced /s/ in front of the back vowels a, o and u (c is otherwise /k/ before a back vowel). C is always pronounced /s/ in front of the front vowels e, i, and y, thus ç is never found in front of front vowels. This letter is used when a front vowel after ⟨c⟩, such as in France or placer, is replaced with a back vowel. To retain the pronunciation of the ⟨c⟩, it is given a cedilla, as in français or plaçons.
- Accents with no pronunciation effect
- The circumflex does not affect the pronunciation of the letters i or u, nor, in most dialects, a. It usually indicates that an s came after it long ago, as in île (from former isle, compare with English word "isle"). The explanation is that some words share the same orthography, so the circumflex is put here to mark the difference between the two words. For example, dites (you say) / dîtes (you said), or even du (of the) / dû (past participle for the verb devoir = must, have to, owe; in this case, the circumflex disappears in the plural and the feminine).
- All other accents are used only to distinguish similar words, as in the case of distinguishing the adverbs là and où ("there", "where") from the article la ("the" feminine singular) and the conjunction ou ("or"), respectively.
- Accents that affect pronunciation
Some proposals exist to simplify the existing writing system, but they still fail to gather interest.[116][117][118][119]
In 1990, a reform accepted some changes to French orthography. At the time the proposed changes were considered to be suggestions. In 2016, schoolbooks in France began to use the newer recommended spellings, with instruction to teachers that both old and new spellings be deemed correct.[120]
Grammar
French is a moderately
French grammar shares several notable features with most other Romance languages, including
- the loss of Latin declensions
- the loss of the neuter gender
- the development of grammatical articles from Latin demonstratives
- the loss of certain Latin tenses and the creation of new tenses from auxiliaries.
Nouns
Every French
Verbs
Moods and tense-aspect forms
The French language consists of both finite and non-finite moods. The finite moods include the
Finite moods
Indicative (indicatif)
The indicative mood makes use of eight tense-aspect forms. These include the
Within the indicative mood, the passé composé, plus-que-parfait, futur antérieur, and passé antérieur all use auxiliary verbs in their forms.
Présent | Imparfait | Passé composé | Passé simple | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |
1st person | j'aime | nous aimons | j'aimais | nous aimions | j'ai aimé | nous avons aimé | j'aimai | nous aimâmes |
2nd person | tu aimes | vous aimez | tu aimais | vous aimiez | tu as aimé | vous avez aimé | tu aimas | vous aimâtes |
3rd person | il/elle aime | ils/elles aiment | il/elle aimait | ils/elles aimaient | il/elle a aimé | ils/elles ont aimé | il/elle aima | ils/elles aimèrent |
Futur simple | Futur antérieur | Plus-que-parfait | Passé antérieur | |||||
Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |
1st person | j'aimerai | nous aimerons | j'aurai aimé | nous aurons aimé | j'avais aimé | nous avions aimé | j'eus aimé | nous eûmes aimé |
2nd person | tu aimeras | vous aimerez | tu auras aimé | vous aurez aimé | tu avais aimé | vous aviez aimé | tu eus aimé | vous eûtes aimé |
3rd person | il/elle aimera | ils/elles aimeront | il/elle aura aimé | ils/elles auront aimé | il/elle avait aimé | ils/elles avaient aimé | il/elle eut aimé | ils/elles eurent aimé |
Subjunctive (subjonctif)
The subjunctive mood only includes four of the tense-aspect forms found in the indicative: present (présent), simple past (passé composé), past imperfective (imparfait), and pluperfect (plus-que-parfait).
Within the subjunctive mood, the passé composé and plus-que-parfait use auxiliary verbs in their forms.
Présent | Imparfait | Passé composé | Plus-que-parfait | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |
1st person | j'aime | nous aimions | j'aimasse | nous aimassions | j'aie aimé | nous ayons aimé | j'eusse aimé | nous eussions aimé |
2nd person | tu aimes | vous aimiez | tu aimasses | vous aimassiez | tu aies aimé | vous ayez aimé | tu eusses aimé | vous eussiez aimé |
3rd person | il/elle aime | ils/elles aiment | il/elle aimât | ils/elles aimassent | il/elle ait aimé | ils/elles aient aimé | il/elle eût aimé | ils/elles eussent aimé |
Imperative (imperatif)
The imperative is used in the present tense (with the exception of a few instances where it is used in the perfect tense). The imperative is used to give commands to you (tu), we/us (nous), and plural you (vous).
Présent | ||
---|---|---|
Singular | Plural | |
1st person | aimons | |
2nd person | aime | aimez |
Conditional (conditionnel)
The conditional makes use of the present (présent) and the past (passé).
The passé uses auxiliary verbs in its forms.
Présent | Passé | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |
1st person | j'aimerais | nous aimerions | j'aurais aimé | nous aurions aimé |
2nd person | tu aimerais | vous aimeriez | tu aurais aimé | vous auriez aimé |
3rd person | il/elle aimerait | ils/elles aimeraient | il/elle aurait aimé | ils/elles auraient aimé |
Voice
French uses both the active voice and the passive voice. The active voice is unmarked while the passive voice is formed by using a form of verb être ("to be") and the past participle.
Example of the active voice:
- "Elle aime le chien." She loves the dog.
- "Marc a conduit la voiture." Marc drove the car.
Example of the passive voice:
- "Le chien est aimé par elle." The dog is loved by her.
- "La voiture a été conduite par Marc." The car was driven by Marc.
However, unless the subject of the sentence is specified, generally the pronoun on "one" is used:
- "On aime le chien." The dog is loved. (Literally "one loves the dog.")
- "On conduit la voiture." The car is (being) driven. (Literally "one drives the car.")
Word order is
Vocabulary
The majority of French words derive from Vulgar Latin or were constructed from Latin or Greek roots. In many cases, a single etymological root appears in French in a "popular" or native form, inherited from Vulgar Latin, and a learned form, borrowed later from Classical Latin. The following pairs consist of a native noun and a learned adjective:
- brother: frère / fraternel from Latin frater / fraternalis
- finger: doigt / digital from Latin digitus / digitalis
- faith: foi / fidèle from Latin fides / fidelis
- eye: œil / oculaire from Latin oculus / ocularis
However, a historical tendency to Gallicise Latin roots can be identified, whereas English conversely leans towards a more direct incorporation of the Latin:
- rayonnement / radiation from Latin radiatio
- éteindre / extinguish from Latin exstinguere
- noyau / nucleus from Latin nucleus
- ensoleillement / insolation from Latin insolatio
There are also noun-noun and adjective-adjective pairs:
It can be difficult to identify the Latin source of native French words because in the evolution from Vulgar Latin, unstressed syllables were severely reduced and the remaining vowels and consonants underwent significant modifications.
More recently (1994) the linguistic policy (Toubon Law) of the French language academies of France and Quebec has been to provide French equivalents[123] to (mainly English) imported words, either by using existing vocabulary, extending its meaning or deriving a new word according to French morphological rules. The result is often two (or more) co-existing terms for describing the same phenomenon.
- mercatique / marketing
- finance fantôme / shadow banking
- bloc-notes / notepad
- ailière / wingsuit
- tiers-lieu / coworking
It is estimated that 12% (4,200) of common French words found in a typical
One study analyzing the degree of differentiation of Romance languages in comparison to Latin estimated that among the languages analyzed French has the greatest distance from Latin.[124] Lexical similarity is 89% with Italian, 80% with Sardinian, 78% with Rhaeto-Romance, and 75% with Romanian, Spanish and Portuguese.[125][1]
Numerals
The numeral system used in the majority of Francophone countries employs both decimal and vigesimal counting. After the use of unique names for the numbers 1–16, those from 17 to 69 are counted by tens, while twenty (vingt) is used as a base number in the names of numbers from 70 to 99. The French word for 80 is quatre-vingts, literally "four twenties", and the word for 75 is soixante-quinze, literally "sixty-fifteen". The vigesimal method of counting is analogous to the archaic English use of score, as in "fourscore and seven" (87), or "threescore and ten" (70).
Belgian, Swiss, and Aostan French[126] as well as that used in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Rwanda and Burundi, use different names for 70 and 90, namely septante and nonante. In Switzerland, depending on the local dialect, 80 can be quatre-vingts (Geneva, Neuchâtel, Jura) or huitante (Vaud, Valais, Fribourg). The Aosta Valley similarly uses huitante[126] for 80. Conversely, Belgium and in its former African colonies use quatre-vingts for 80.
In Old French (during the Middle Ages), all numbers from 30 to 99 could be said in either base 10 or base 20, e.g. vint et doze (twenty and twelve) for 32, dous vinz et diz (two twenties and ten) for 50, uitante for 80, or nonante for 90.[127]
The term octante was historically used in Switzerland for 80, but is now considered archaic.[128]
French, like most European languages, uses a space to separate thousands.[129] The comma (French: virgule) is used in French numbers as a decimal point, i.e. "2,5" instead of "2.5". In the case of currencies, the currency markers are substituted for decimal point, i.e. "5$7" for "5 dollars and 7 cents".
Example text
Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in French:
- Tous les êtres humains naissent libres et égaux en dignité et en droits. Ils sont doués de raison et de conscience et doivent agir les uns envers les autres dans un esprit de fraternité.[130]
Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in English:
- All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.[131]
See also
- Alliance Française
- AZERTY
- Français fondamental
- Francization
- Francophile
- Francophobia
- Francophonie
- French language in the United States
- French language in Canada
- French poetry
- Glossary of French expressions in English
- Influence of French on English
- Language education
- List of countries where French is an official language
- List of English words of French origin
- List of French loanwords in Persian
- List of French words and phrases used by English speakers
- List of German words of French origin
- Official bilingualism in Canada
- Varieties of French
Notes
- ^ Dots: cities with native transmission, typically a minority.
- Gambia and Mozambique..
One country not member or observer of the OIF: Algeria.
Two French territories in Africa: Réunion and Mayotte
References
- ^ a b c d French at Ethnologue (27th ed., 2024)
- ^ Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin; Bank, Sebastian (24 May 2022). "Glottolog 4.8 - Shifted Western Romance". Glottolog. Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology. Archived from the original on 27 November 2023. Retrieved 11 November 2023.
- ^ Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin; Bank, Sebastian (24 May 2022). "Glottolog 4.8 - Oil". Glottolog. Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology. Archived from the original on 11 November 2023. Retrieved 11 November 2023.
- ^ "The world's languages, in 7 maps and charts". The Washington Post. 18 April 2022. Archived from the original on 16 August 2015. Retrieved 19 April 2022.
- ^ "Census in Brief: English, French and official language minorities in Canada". www12.statcan.gc.ca. 2 August 2017. Archived from the original on 11 March 2018. Retrieved 25 March 2018.
- ^ French at Ethnologue (26th ed., 2023)
- ^ "La langue française dans le monde" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 17 March 2022. Retrieved 30 March 2022.
- ^ "French language is on the up, report reveals". thelocal.fr. 6 November 2014. Archived from the original on 1 September 2015. Retrieved 30 August 2015.
- ^ ISBN ISBN 978–0–19–928674–4 HB ISBN 978–0–19–928675–1 PB.)
{{cite book}}
: Check|isbn=
value: invalid character (help - ^ a b Ploog, Katja (25 September 2002). Le français à Abidjan : Pour une approche syntaxique du non-standard Broché – 25 septembre 2002. ASIN 2271059682.
- ^ a b Kelen Ernesta Fonyuy, Kelen Ernesta Fonyuy (24 October 2024). "Revitalizing Cameroon Indigenous Languages Usage in Empowering Realms".
- ^ a b Tove Rosendal, Tove Rosendal (2008). "Multilingual Cameroon Policy, Practice, Problems and Solutions" (PDF).
- ^ ISSN 2219-8237.
- ^ a b Ursula, Reutner (December 2023). "Manual of Romance Languages in Africa".
- ^ a b Øyvind, Dahl (19 June 2024). "Linguistic policy challenges in Madagascar" (PDF). core.ac.uk. Retrieved 19 June 2024.
- ^ a b Lu, Marcus (31 August 2024). "Mapped: Top 15 Countries by Native French Speakers".
- ^ ISSN 0030-9230.
- ^ ISSN 2796-0064.
- from the original on 25 May 2024. Retrieved 18 March 2024 – via ResearchGate.
- ^ a b "The status of French in the world". Archived from the original on 22 September 2015. Retrieved 23 April 2015.
- ^ a b European Commission (June 2012), "Europeans and their Languages" (PDF), Special Eurobarometer 386, Europa, p. 5, archived from the original (PDF) on 6 January 2016, retrieved 7 September 2014
- ^ "Why Learn French". Archived from the original on 19 June 2008.
- ^ Develey, Alice (25 February 2017). "Le français est la deuxième langue la plus étudiée dans l'Union européenne". Archived from the original on 24 April 2017. Retrieved 20 June 2017 – via Le Figaro.
- ^ "How many people speak French and where is French spoken". Archived from the original on 21 November 2017. Retrieved 21 November 2017.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-511-48297-7.
- ^ ISBN 978-2-7298-6470-5.
- ISBN 978-0-415-08071-2. Archivedfrom the original on 18 September 2023. Retrieved 28 September 2020.
- ISBN 1-58811-313-2. Archivedfrom the original on 18 September 2023. Retrieved 11 November 2020.
- ^ .
- ISBN 9780901519597.
- ^ a b Savignac, Jean-Paul (2004). Dictionnaire Français-Gaulois. Paris: La Différence. p. 26.
- ^ Pellegrini, Giovanni Battista (2011). "Substrata". In Posner; Green (eds.). Romance Comparative and Historical Linguistics. De Gruyter Mouton. pp. 43–74. Celtic influences on French discussed in pages 64-67. Page 65:"In recent years the primary role of the substratum... has been disputed. Best documented is the CT- > it change which is found in all Western Romania... more reservations have been expressed about... ū > [y]..."; :"Summary on page 67: "There can be no doubt that the way French stands out from the other Western Romance languages (Vidos 1956: 363) is largely due to the intensity of its Celtic substratum, compared with lateral areas like Iberia and Venetia..."
- ^ Guiter, Henri (1995). "Sur le substrat gaulois dans la Romania". In Bochnakowa, Anna; Widlak, Stanislan (eds.). Munus amicitae. Studia linguistica in honorem Witoldi Manczak septuagenarii. Krakow.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^ Roegiest 2006, p. 83.
- ^ Matasovic, Ranko (2007). "Insular Celtic as a Language Area". The Celtic Languages in Contact: Papers from the Workshop Within the Framework of the XIII International Congress of Celtic Studies. p. 106.
- S2CID 6797972.
- .
- ^ Müller, Bodo (1982). "Geostatistik der gallischen/keltischen Substratwörter in der Galloromania". In Winkelmann, Otto (ed.). Festschrift für Johannes Hubschmid zum 65. Geburtsag. Beiträge zur allgemeinen, indogermanischen und romanischen Sprachwissenschaft. pp. 603–620.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-8196-0191-9. Archivedfrom the original on 18 September 2023. Retrieved 10 June 2021.
"...sixty-eight or more Celtic words in standard Latin; not all of these came down into Romance.... did not survive among the people. Vulgar speech in Gaul used many others... at least 361 words of Gaulish provenance in French and Provençal. These Celtic words fell into more homely types than... borrowings from Germanː agriculture... household effects... animals... food and drink... trees... body -- 17 (dor < durnu), dress... construction... birds... fish... insects... pièce < *pettia, and the remainder divided among weapons, religion, literature, music, persons, sickness and mineral. It is evident that the peasants were the last to hold to their Celtic. The count on the Celtic element was made by Leslie Moss at the University of North Carolina... based on unanimity of agreement among the best lexicographers...
- ^ a b Roegiest 2006, p. 82.
- ^ a b c d "HarvardKey – Login". www.pin1.harvard.edu. Archived from the original on 13 August 2021. Retrieved 16 May 2019.
- ^ from the original on 27 April 2021. Retrieved 7 January 2021.
- ^ Rowlett, P. 2007. The Syntax of French. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Page 4
- ^ Pope, Mildred K. (1934). From Latin to Modern French with Especial Consideration of Anglo-Norman Phonology and Morphology. Manchester: Manchester University Press.
- ISBN 978-1-4299-3240-0. Archivedfrom the original on 18 May 2024. Retrieved 4 August 2024.
- ^ Victor, Joseph M. (1978). Charles de Bovelles, 1479–1553: An Intellectual Biography. Librairie Droz. p. 28.
- ^ The World's 10 Most Influential Languages. Archived 12 March 2008 at the Wayback Machine. Top Languages. Retrieved 11 April 2011.
- ISBN 978-0-203-41796-6. Archivedfrom the original on 18 September 2023. Retrieved 2 July 2015.
- ^ Meisler, Stanley (1 March 1986). "Seduction Still Works: French – a Language in Decline". The Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on 2 July 2015. Retrieved 18 October 2021.
- ^ "Rapport Grégoire an II". Languefrancaise.net (in French). 18 November 2003. Archived from the original on 23 November 2006. Retrieved 11 June 2007.
- ^ ISBN 978-2-85910-426-9.
- ^ Joubert, Aurélie (2010). "A Comparative Study of the Evolution of Prestige Formations and of Speakers' Attitudes in Occitan and Catalan" (PDF). www.research.manchester.ac.uk.
- ^ EUROPA Archived 17 June 2017 at the Wayback Machine, data for EU25, published before 2007 enlargement.
- ^ "Explore language knowledge in Europe". languageknowledge.eu. Archived from the original on 17 September 2016. Retrieved 24 November 2014.
- OCLC 871965715.
- ^ Van Parijs, Philippe. "Belgium's new linguistic challenge" (PDF). KVS Express (Supplement to Newspaper de Morgen) March–April 2006: Article from original source (pdf 4.9 MB) pp. 34–36 republished by the Belgian Federal Government Service (ministry) of Economy – Directorate–general Statistics Belgium. Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 June 2007. Retrieved 5 May 2007.
- ISBN 978-2-87747-881-6. Archivedfrom the original on 18 September 2023. Retrieved 10 September 2010.
- ^ Une Vallée d'Aoste bilingue dans une Europe plurilingue / Una Valle d'Aosta bilingue in un'Europa plurilingue, Aoste, Fondation Émile Chanoux, 2003.
- ^ "Allemagne: le français, bientôt la deuxième langue officielle de la Sarre". 28 April 2014. Archived from the original on 22 August 2017. Retrieved 20 June 2017.
- ^ "German region of Saarland moves towards bilingualism". BBC News. 21 January 2014. Archived from the original on 14 October 2018. Retrieved 21 July 2018.
- ^ a b Population Reference Bureau. "2023 World Population Data Sheet" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 February 2024. Retrieved 5 February 2024.
- ^ United Nations. "World Population Prospects: The 2022 Revision" (XLSX). Archived from the original on 6 March 2023. Retrieved 5 February 2024.
- ^ Observatoire de la langue française de l'Organisation internationale de la Francophonie. "Francoscope. « 327 millions de francophones dans le monde en 2023 »" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 15 April 2023. Retrieved 5 February 2024.
- ^ a b Observatoire démographique et statistique de l'espace francophone (ODSEF). "Estimation du pourcentage et des effectifs de francophones (2023-03-15)". Archived from the original on 24 January 2024. Retrieved 5 February 2024.
- ^ Cross, Tony (19 March 2010), "French language growing, especially in Africa", Radio France Internationale, archived from the original on 25 March 2010, retrieved 25 May 2013
- ^ "Agora: La francophonie de demain". 24 November 2004. Archived from the original on 18 September 2023. Retrieved 13 June 2011.
- ^ "Bulletin de liaison du réseau démographie" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 April 2012. Retrieved 14 June 2011.
- ^ "Annonces import export Francophone – CECIF.com". www.cecif.com. Archived from the original on 17 January 2013. Retrieved 2 March 2007.
- ^ France-Diplomatie Archived 27 July 2009 at the Wayback Machine "Furthermore, the demographic growth of Southern hemisphere countries leads us to anticipate a new increase in the overall number of French speakers."
- ^ (in French) "Le français, langue en évolution. Dans beaucoup de pays francophones, surtout sur le continent africain, une proportion importante de la population ne parle pas couramment le français (même s'il est souvent la langue officielle du pays). Ce qui signifie qu'au fur et à mesure que les nouvelles générations vont à l'école, le nombre de francophones augmente : on estime qu'en 2015, ceux-ci seront deux fois plus nombreux qu'aujourd'hui. Archived 17 January 2013 at the Wayback Machine"
- ^ (in French) c) Le sabir franco-africain Archived 17 January 2013 at the Wayback Machine: "C'est la variété du français la plus fluctuante. Le sabir franco-africain est instable et hétérogène sous toutes ses formes. Il existe des énoncés où les mots sont français mais leur ordre reste celui de la langue africaine. En somme, autant les langues africaines sont envahies par les structures et les mots français, autant la langue française se métamorphose en Afrique, donnant naissance à plusieurs variétés."
- ^ (in French) République centrafricaine Archived 5 April 2007 at the Wayback Machine: Il existe une autre variété de français, beaucoup plus répandue et plus permissive : le français local. C'est un français très influencé par les langues centrafricaines, surtout par le sango. Cette variété est parlée par les classes non-instruites, qui n'ont pu terminer leur scolarité. Ils usent ce qu'ils connaissent du français avec des emprunts massifs aux langues locales. Cette variété peut causer des problèmes de compréhension avec les francophones des autres pays, car les interférences linguistiques, d'ordre lexical et sémantique, sont très importantes. (One example of a variety of African French that is difficult to understand for European French speakers).
- ^ a b "Profile table". Census Profile, 2021 Census of Population. Statistics Canada. 9 February 2022. Retrieved 13 November 2024.
- ^ "Francophonie ("Qu'est-ce que la Francophonie?")". www.axl.cefan.ulaval.ca. Archived from the original on 13 July 2015. Retrieved 6 July 2015.
- ^ "Montreal". World Union of Olympic Cities. Archived from the original on 7 October 2024. Retrieved 13 November 2024.
- ^ Péladeau, Pierrot (13 September 2014). "Montréal n'est pas la deuxième ville française du monde". Journal de Montréal (in Canadian French). Retrieved 13 November 2024.
- ^ "Detailed Mother Tongue (186), Knowledge of Official Languages (5), Age Groups (17A) and Sex (3) (2006 Census)". 2.statcan.ca. 7 December 2010. Archived from the original on 2 February 2009. Retrieved 22 February 2011.
- ^ "Services and communications from federal institutions". Office of the Commissioner of Official Languages of Canada. Government of Canada. Archived from the original on 14 November 2024. Retrieved 13 November 2024.
- ^ "Language Use in the United States: 2011, American Community Survey Reports, Camille Ryan, Issued August 2013" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 February 2016. Retrieved 18 February 2018.
- ^ "Language Spoken at Home by Ability to Speak English for the Population 5 Years and Over : Universe: Population 5 years and over: 2007–2011 American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates??". Factfinder2.census.gov. Archived from the original on 12 February 2020. Retrieved 14 March 2015.
- ISBN 978-0-89925-356-5. Archivedfrom the original on 18 September 2023. Retrieved 14 November 2011.
- from the original on 6 September 2015.
Under the 1987 Constitution, adopted after the overthrow of Jean‑Claude Duvalier's dictatorship, [Haitian] Creole and French have been the two official languages, but most of the population speaks only Creole fluently.
- ^ Ministère de l'Éducation nationale
- ^ "Guyana – World Travel Guide". Archived from the original on 18 October 2016. Retrieved 17 October 2016.
- ^ "Saint Pierre and Miquelon". CIA World Factbook. 18 October 2021. Archived from the original on 2 February 2021. Retrieved 28 January 2021.
- ^ Richardson, Michael (16 October 1993). "French Declines in Indochina, as English Booms". International Herald Tribune. Archived from the original on 9 October 2018. Retrieved 18 November 2018.
- ^ says, Aly Chiman (1 February 2007). "The Role of English in Vietnam's Foreign Language Policy: A Brief History". www.worldwide.rs. Archived from the original on 25 February 2021. Retrieved 26 February 2021.
- ^ Kirkpatrick, Andy and Anthony J. Liddicoat, The Routledge International Handbook of Language Education Policy in Asia., Routledge, 2019, p. 192
- ^ a b "English to continue as link language in Puducherry: Court". The Times of India. 14 September 2014. Archived from the original on 21 October 2021. Retrieved 16 October 2021.
- ^ Pondicherry, the French outpost in India Archived 16 October 2021 at the Wayback Machine, France 24
- ^ Axel Tschentscher, LL.M. "Article 11 of the Lebanese Constitution". Servat.unibe.ch. Archived from the original on 16 January 2013. Retrieved 17 January 2013.
- ^ OIF 2014, p. 217.
- ^ OIF 2014, p. 218.
- ^ OIF 2014, p. 358.
- ^ "P9-1 – Population de 14 ans et plus selon la connaissance du français, le sexe, par commune, "zone" et par province de résidence" (XLS) (in French). Government of France. Archived from the original on 18 September 2023. Retrieved 3 October 2009.
- ^ a b Institut Statistique de Polynésie Française (ISPF). "Recensement 2017 – Données détaillées Langues". Archived from the original on 7 April 2019. Retrieved 7 April 2019.
- ^ a b STSEE. "Les premiers résultats du recensement de la population 2018 – Principaux_tableaux_population_2018" (in French). Archived from the original (ODS) on 8 June 2019. Retrieved 7 April 2019.
- ^ Institut Statistique de Polynésie Française (ISPF). "Recensement 2007 – Données détaillées Langues". Archived from the original on 18 February 2020. Retrieved 7 April 2019.
- ^ "Tableau Pop_06_1: Population selon le sexe, la connaissance du français et l'âge décennal" (in French). Government of France. Archived from the original (XLS) on 4 June 2011. Retrieved 3 October 2009.
- ^ "Agora: La francophonie de demain". 24 November 2004. Archived from the original on 18 September 2023. Retrieved 13 June 2011.
- ^ Gobry, Pascal-Emmanuel. "Want To Know The Language Of The Future? The Data Suggests It Could Be...French". Forbes. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 8 August 2017.
- ^ "Focus – EU after Brexit: Will the French language make a comeback?". France 24. 17 October 2019. Archived from the original on 2 October 2020. Retrieved 16 September 2020.
- ^ Kai Chan, Distinguished Fellow, INSEAD Innovation and Policy Initiative, "These are the most powerful languages in the world" Archived 24 March 2019 at the Wayback Machine, World Economic Forum, December 2016
- ^ Rodney Ball, Dawn Marley, The French-Speaking World: A Practical Introduction to Sociolinguistic Issues, Taylor & Francis, 2016, page 6
- ^ The French Ministry of Foreign affairs. "France-Diplomatie". France Diplomatie: Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Development. Archived from the original on 19 January 2012. Retrieved 26 July 2011.
- ^ Gobry, Pascal-Emmanuel (21 March 2014). "Want To Know The Language of the Future? The Data Suggests It Could Be...French". Forbes. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 18 November 2018.
- ^ AfricaNews (26 July 2023). "Mali drops French as official language". Africanews. Retrieved 28 March 2024.
- ^ AfricaNews (7 December 2023). "Burkina abandons French as an official language". Africanews. Retrieved 28 March 2024.
- from the original on 22 July 2024. Retrieved 20 June 2024.
- ^ a b c d The World's 10 most influential languages, George Weber, 1997, Language Today, retrieved on scribd.com
- ^ Burns, Judith (22 June 2014). "Foreign languages 'shortfall' for business, CBI says". BBC News. Archived from the original on 30 December 2018. Retrieved 18 November 2018.
- ^ Johnson (9 December 2017). "Johnson: What is a foreign language worth?". The Economist. Archived from the original on 9 December 2017. Retrieved 9 December 2017.
- ^ Lauerman, John (30 August 2011). "Mandarin Chinese Most Useful Business Language After English". Bloomberg. New York. Archived from the original on 29 March 2015.
French, spoken by 68 million people worldwide and the official language of 27 countries, was ranked second [to Mandarin].
- from the original on 18 September 2023. Retrieved 30 July 2017.
- (PDF) from the original on 22 September 2019. Retrieved 22 September 2019.
- ^ (in French) Fonétik.fr writing system proposal Archived 13 May 2012 at the Wayback Machine.
- ^ (in French) Ortofasil writing system proposal Archived 14 April 2009 at the Wayback Machine.
- ^ (in French) Alfograf writing system proposal Archived 12 January 2010 at the Wayback Machine.
- ^ (in French) Ortograf.net writing system proposal Archived 29 September 2009 at the Wayback Machine.
- ^ "End of the circumflex? Changes in French spelling cause uproar". BBC News. 5 February 2016. Archived from the original on 31 May 2018. Retrieved 30 July 2017.
- ^ Caffarel, Alice; Martin, J.R.; Matthiessen, Christian M.I.M. Language Typology: A Functional Perspective. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.
- ^ a b Walter & Walter 1998.
- ^ metrowebukmetro (1 October 2012). "French fight franglais with alternatives for English technology terms". Metro News. Archived from the original on 17 May 2013. Retrieved 21 July 2013.
- ISBN 978-0-397-00400-3.
- ^ Brincat, Joseph M. (2005). "Maltese – an unusual formula". MED Magazine (27). Archived from the original on 5 September 2005. Retrieved 22 February 2008.
- ^ a b Jean-Pierre Martin, Description lexicale du français parlé en Vallée d'Aoste, éd. Musumeci, Quart, 1984.
- ISBN 978-0-521-09838-0.
- ^ "Septante, octante (huitante), nonante". langue-fr.net (in French). Archived from the original on 4 September 2010. Retrieved 19 July 2009.. See also the English Wikipedia article on Welsh language, especially the section "Counting system" and its note on the influence of Celtic in the French counting system.
- Académie française. Archived from the originalon 1 January 2015. Retrieved 15 November 2015.
- ^ "Universal Declaration of Human Rights". ohchr.org. Archived from the original on 7 January 2022. Retrieved 7 January 2022.
- ^ "Universal Declaration of Human Rights". un.org. Archived from the original on 31 July 2021. Retrieved 7 January 2022.
Works cited
- La langue française dans le monde 2014 (PDF) (in French). Nathan. 2014. ISBN 978-2-09-882654-0. Archived from the original(PDF) on 12 April 2015. Retrieved 5 April 2015.
- Roegiest, Eugeen (2006). Vers les sources des langues romanes: Un itinéraire linguistique à travers la Romania. Leuven, Belgium: Acco.
Further reading
- Marc Fumaroli (2011). When the World Spoke French. Translated by Richard Howard. New York Review of Books. ISBN 978-1-59017-375-6.
- Nadeau, Jean-Benoît, and Julie Barlow (2006). The Story of French. (First U.S. ed.) New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312-34183-0.
- ISBN 978-3-11-034670-1
External links
- Definitions from Wiktionary
- Media from Commons
- Quotations from Wikiquote
- Texts from Wikisource
- Textbooks from Wikibooks
- Resources from Wikiversity
- Phrasebook from Wikivoyage
- French edition of Wikipedia
- Data from Wikidata
Organisations
- Fondation Alliance française: an international organisation for the promotion of French language and culture (in French)
- Agence de promotion du FLE: Agency for promoting French as a foreign language
Courses and tutorials
- Français interactif: interactive French program, University of Texas at Austin
- Tex's French Grammar, University of Texas at Austin
- Lingopolo French
- French lessons in London, The Language machine
Online dictionaries
- Oxford Dictionaries French Dictionary
- Collins Online English↔French Dictionary
- Centre national de ressources textuelles et lexicales: monolingual dictionaries (including the Trésor de la langue française), language corpora, etc.
Grammar
Verbs
- French verb conjugation at Verbix
Vocabulary
Numbers
- Smith, Paul. "French, Numbers". Numberphile. Brady Haran. Archived from the original on 2 March 2017. Retrieved 7 April 2013.
Books
- (in French) La langue française dans le monde 2010 (Full book freely accessible)
Articles
- "The status of French in the world". French Ministry of Foreign Affairs
Links to related articles | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|