Frisian freedom
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Frisian Freedom Fryske Frijheid (West Frisian) | |||||||||||||||
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c. 800–1523 | |||||||||||||||
Igo Galema | |||||||||||||||
• 986–1000 | Gosse Ludigman | ||||||||||||||
• 1150–1167 | Saco Reinalda | ||||||||||||||
• 1237–1260 | Sicko Sjaerdema | ||||||||||||||
• 1300–1306 | Reinier Camminga | ||||||||||||||
• 1306–1313 | Hessel Martena | ||||||||||||||
• 1396 | Juw Juwinga | ||||||||||||||
• 1399 | Odo Botnia | ||||||||||||||
• 1399–1404 | Haring Harinxma | ||||||||||||||
• 1399–1410 | Sjoerd Wiarda | ||||||||||||||
• 1494–1498 | Juw Dekama | ||||||||||||||
Legislature | Frisian Peasant Rebellion defeated | 1523 | |||||||||||||
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Today part of |
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Frisian freedom (
When, around 800, the Scandinavian
The killing of Arnulf, Count of Holland in 993 is the first sign of the Frisian freedom. This Frisian count was killed in a rebel attempt to compel obedience from his subjects. The murder of another Count Henri de Gras in 1101 is regarded as the de facto beginning of the Frisian freedom. This freedom was recognized by the German King William II on November 3, 1248. He did this after the Frisians aided in the siege of the city of Aachen. Later, Emperor Louis IV repealed these rights and granted Friesland to the County of Holland. In 1417 the status of the Frisians was reaffirmed by Emperor Sigismund.
Origins (800–1101)
This section needs additional citations for verification. (January 2022) |
Origin of the freedom privileges
In the late 700s, the Frankish king
Other legends say the Frisians received their freedom from Charlemagne after the Frisians, under command of Magnus, freed Rome from the Saraceni or
The first historical proof of freedom privileges is in AD 1248 when William II, count of Holland, was crowned Holy Roman Emperor in Aachen, in the presence of Frisians. Two days after his coronation he re-affirmed the alleged freedom privileges. The second event was in AD 1417 when Holy Roman Emperor Sigismund gave the Frisians their freedom privileges, all based on the Frisians freedom claim for centuries. This charter has been preserved.[3]
The aforementioned legends mostly regard the Mid-Frisians, i.e. Frisia west of the river Ems. The East Frisians, east of the river Ems, have yet another legend as to how they received their freedom. That was after they had defeated the Danes in the battle of Norditi also called the Normannenslacht, in (or around) AD 884. Out of gratitude King Charles the Fat offered the freedom privileges to the Frisians.
Regardless of the origins of the Frisian freedom, from the ninth century to the beginning of the sixteenth century Frisia went through a unique period of development, almost entirely lacking the feudal structure introduced by Charlemagne. All Frisians were granted the title of 'freemen', and given the right to elect their own
Viking raids (810–884)
Around this time,
However, in 826, Louis the Pious ceded the county of
The Norsemen at this time fell on Frisia with their usual surprise attack. Coming upon our unprepared people on an island called Walcheren, they slaughtered many of them and plundered even more. They stayed on the island for a while, levying as much tribute as they wanted. Then they fell on Dorestad with the same fury and exacted tribute in the same way. When the Emperor heard about these attacks, he postponed his planned journey to Rome and wasted no time in hurrying to the fort of Nijmegen close by Dorestad. When the Norsemen heard of his arrival there, they withdrew immediately. Now the Emperor summoned a general assembly and held an inquiry in public with those magnates to whom he had delegated the task of guarding that coast. It became clear from the discussion that partly through the sheer impossibility of the task, partly through the disobedience of certain men, it had not been possible for them to offer any resistance to the attackers. Energetic abbots and counts were therefore dispatched to suppress the insubordinate Frisians. Now too, that from then on he would be better able to resist their incursions, he gave orders that a fleet should be made ready to go more speedily in pursuit in whatever direction might be required.[6]: 837
In 839 there was an uprising in Friesland against the emperor. During the kinstrife between Louis and his sons, Gerulf the Elder presumably took an active part in the movement against Louis, at the very least he lost his
Rorik the Norseman held the vicus Dorestad as a
Danes and began a career of piracy, devastating places near the northern coasts of Lothair's kingdom. And he came through the mouth of the river Rhine to Dorestad, seized and held it. Because the emperor Lothar was unable to drive him out without danger to his own men, Rorik was received back into fealty on the advice of his counsellors and through mediators on condition that he would faithfully handle the taxes and other matters pertaining to the royal fisc, and would resist the piratical attacks of the Danes.[8]
After Rorik, together with
Rorik (Rorich), the nephew of Harald Klak, who had recently defected from Lothar, raised whole armies of Norsemen with a vast number of ships and laid waste Frisia and the island of
Waal. Lothar, since he could not crush him, received him into his allegiance and granted him Dorestad and other counties.[6]: 850
In 855 Godfrid and Rorik tried to gain power in Denmark after the death of king Horik I. The attempt failed, and they returned the same year, taking back Dorestad:
Lothar I gave the whole of Frisia to his son
Lothair II of Lotharingia, whereupon Rorik and Godfrid headed back to their native Denmark in the hope of gaining royal power ... Rorik and Godfrid, on whom success had not smiled, remained based at Dorestad and held sway over most of Frisia.[6]: 855...
In January 863 Danes sailed up the Rhine towards Cologne, after sacking the emporium called Dorestad and also a fairly large villa at which the Frisians had taken refuge, and after slaying many Frisian traders and taking captive large numbers of people. Then they reached a certain island near the fort of Neuss. Lothar came up and attacked them with his men along one bank of the Rhine and the Saxons along the other and they encamped there until about the beginning of April. The Danes therefore followed the advice of Hrørek and withdrew by the same way they had come."[6]: 863
A rumour soon circulated that Rorik had encouraged the raiders on their expedition, in 867 there was a local revolt by the Cokingi and Rorik was driven out of Frisia.
Lothair II summoned up the host throughout his realm to the defense of the fatherland, as he explained, against the Norsemen, for he expected, that Hrørek, whom the local people, the new name for them is Cokings, had driven out of Frisia, would return bringing some Danes to help him.[6]: 867
In June 873, Harald the Younger's son
Igo Galama was elected the fifth potestaat in 876, he saw to the erection of dikes and reinforcement of seawalls in order to defend from the advancing ocean, and the construction of defence facilities and re-establishment of coastal surveillance in order to defend from the Viking invasions. Deeply concerned by the threat to the church and empire presented by the Viking presence in Frisia, an archbishop named Rimbert broke off his mission in Sweden and Denmark in order to call on the Frisian population to resist the invasion. In Autumn 884 he personally led them into the Battle of Norditi. In the course of the ensuing battle, the Frisian army succeeded in pushing the Vikings back into Hilgenried Bay near Norden (in the municipality of Hagermarsch) where many were surprised by the incoming tide and drowned as they fled. According to Adam of Bremen, 10,377 Vikings were killed in the battle and great treasures were captured by the Frisians, the liberated estates and captured treasures were subsequently managed as communal property. With this victory the Vikings were driven permanently out of East Frisia, although it remained under constant threat.
West Frisia (880–1101)
In 880,
In 989 Gosse Ludigman was elected the sixth potestaat. In 993 Arnulf, Count of Holland invaded deep into West Frisia in an attempt to compel obedience from his rebellious subjects and "proclaimed himself count of Oostergo and Westergo without ever having any authority". On 18 September a Frisian army led by Gosse defeated and killed Arnulf in a battle near Winkel in West Frisia, in what came to be known as one of the first historical signs of the Frisian freedom. Arnulf's wife Lutgardis of Luxemburg took over as regent of Holland until their son came of age. In June 1005, she made peace with the West Frisians through mediation by Emperor Henry II, after which the county was passed to Dirk III. But even after Dirk assumed the government of the county, she still used her family connections to acquire imperial assistance, in one instance an imperial army helped Dirk suppress a Frisian revolt.
Prior to 1018, Dirk III was a vassal of Henry II, but the bishops of
It was along this second route that Dirk III had built a stronghold at Vlaardingen, in a newly habitable area where many Frisians had recently settled by his invitation. He was not permitted to levy tolls or hinder trade in any way, but eventually he defied imperial rule. Working together with the Frisians now living in the area, he stopped passing ships, demanding payment of tolls. Merchants from the town of Tiel sent alarmed messages to the king and Bishop Adalbold of Utrecht about acts of violence against them by Dirk's men. The count had illegally occupied lands that were claimed by the bishop of Utrecht, and had even built a castle there. The prince-bishoprics of Liège, Trier, and Cologne as well as several abbeys also had possessions in the region.
At Easter 1018, Emperor Henry II summoned a Diet in Nijmegen. He listened to the complaints of the merchants from Tiel and Bishop Adalbold. Dirk was present but refused to amend his ways. Henry assigned Adalbold and Duke Godfrey to organise a punitive expedition against the rebellious Count Dirk, who then left the meeting, announcing to foil the imperial plans. Within a few months, an army would be assembled in Tiel, the most important port in the northern Low Countries. The army would sail west, along the rivers Waal and Merwede, to Dirk's stronghold in Vlaardingen.
Three more bishops would supply troops:
The fleet with the thousands-strong imperial army drifted down the river and moored at Vlaardingen. After disembarkation the army marched towards Count Dirk's castle. The locals, who had seen the fleet approaching, had withdrawn within the castle and "on higher grounds". Initially, Godfrey lined his men up around the castle, but then he ordered them to march towards a flat field, because it would be difficult to cross the ditches that were dug all over the place.
During this manoeuvre, hundreds of Frisians unexpectedly appeared from an ambush and attacked. Someone cried out that the duke had been killed, upon which panic broke out. The imperial warriors hurried back to their ships, which had been moved to the middle of the stream by now, because of the lowered tide. They sank away in the soggy river bank or they drowned. Meanwhile, the Frisians in the castle gestured and shouted to their countrymen on the higher areas to attack the survivors from the rear. The fleeing soldiers were finished off with javelins.
Only towards the end did Dirk III appear: he rode out of the castle, with a few retainers. They hurried towards
After Count Dirk III's death in 1039, an affirmation and recognition of the Karelsprivilege was given by Emperor Conrad II.
Dirk IV's brother and successor
Gertrude and her son withdrew to the islands of Frisia, leaving William to occupy the disputed lands. In 1063 Gertrude married
Robert therefore, in both his own right and that of Dirk, was now the ruler of all Frisia. The death of his brother
In 1073, the Saxons, led by
The war in Holland and Frisia became part of a large conflict from 1075 onwards. The pope had excommunicated Emperor Henry IV. William I, Bishop of Utrecht supported the emperor, while the Dirk V, Count of Holland supported Pope Gregory VII and anti-king Rudolf of Rheinfelden. Egbert II originally supported Rudolf, but eventually he and many other Saxon nobles withdrew their support and remained neutral.
While Robert was thus engaged in Flanders, an effort was made to recover the
After the death of Otto of Nordheim in 1083, Egbert II was the most important, but also inconsistent, Saxon opponent of Henry IV. In 1085, the two were briefly reconciled and Egbert entertained Henry in Saxony in July. In September, the conflict was resumed, and in 1086 the emperor gave the Frisian districts of
Dirk V was succeeded by
Freedom (1101–1523)
Over the centuries, whilst
Though there have been counts who lay claim to Frisia, they couldn't develop themselves as landlords because the second pillar of the feudalism (Serfdom) was completely absent in Frisia. Unlike large parts of Europe under Feudalism, in Frisia there always remained a monetary economy. The Frisian farmers mainly practised cattle breeding and combined this for centuries with trade. The serf's duties to their lord – the mandatory tributes of payment in kind – could be bought off with money by the Frisians. The Count of Holland could for some time still practice their power as judge, but lack of a local root of power eventually caused their demise. Instead, during times of crisis or dispute, potestaats were elected by the free men of Frisia. Potestaats led free Frisian armies against invading feudal lords, they also served to mediate disputes, however they held no centralized executive power of their own.
The absence of a manorial authority meant that there existed no central administration. In fact, Friesland consisted of a large number of autonomous areas. The various lands, often referred to as provinces, were controlled by the residents themselves. It also lacked any central legal or judicial system. In order to provide a systematic legal system, local leaders attempted to agree and apply rules to the entire region of Frisia. Legal and political delegates from various provinces came to meetings at the Opstalboom in Aurich, to judge, to make decisions and, if necessary, to defend their autonomy. The delegates were elected by their home province at Easter and together were called to a jury. The meetings took place once a year on the Tuesday after Pentecost.[12] Later those meetings were also held in Groningen. Land ownership played the decisive role in this. The extensive possession of the monasteries in particular gave the abbots of the larger monasteries such as Aduard a major role in that administration. The monasteries also played a major role in establishing the law. In addition to the arrangements of the Opstalboom an attempt was tried to resort to the old law as it was recorded in the 17 Census and 24 Landrights. Even after a uniform legal system had been agreed on, the region's lack of central administration meant that there was no way to clarify the content of the law, and the enforcement of the law was left up to individual communities. If a man did not want to adhere to a judgement, the Opstalboom itself lacked the means to force him. Originally the abbots still had sufficient moral authority, but their extensive monastic ownership gave them a vested interest.
The name Opstalboom cannot be defined with certainty. The word 'opstal' has a
Friesland had no knighthood or
The ideas practised during the Frisian freedom have been praised by
Water management in that lowland northern country in the 12th and 13th centuries provides another example of bottom-up solutions to environmental problems. Since much of the Netherlands is below sea level and nearly all of it is in danger of flooding, farmers had to work constantly to maintain and improve the water management system. The protections against flooding were a common infrastructure that benefited everybody, yet they also required everyone to invest in the good of the collective to maintain them: an individual farmer stood to gain by shirking water management duties, but the entire society would lose if there were a flood. This example is especially significant because Dutch society lacked the anarchistic values common in indigenous societies. The area had long been converted to Christianity and indoctrinated in its ecocidal, hierarchical values; for hundreds of years it had been under the control of a state, though the empire had fallen apart and in the 12th and 13th centuries the Netherlands were effectively stateless. Central authority in the form of church officials, feudal lords, and guilds remained strong in Holland and Zeeland, where capitalism would eventually originate, but in northern regions such as Friesland society was largely decentralized and horizontal. At that time, contact between towns dozens of miles apart – several days' travel – could be more challenging than global communication in the present day. Despite this difficulty, farming communities, towns, and villages managed to build and maintain extensive infrastructure to reclaim land from the sea and protect against flooding amid fluctuating sea levels. Neighborhood councils, by organizing cooperative work bands or dividing duties between communities, built and maintained the dykes, canals, sluices, and drainage systems necessary to protect the entire society; it was "a joint approach from the bottom-up, from the local communities, that found their protection through organizing themselves in such a way."[14] Spontaneous horizontal organizing even played a major role in the feudal areas such as Holland and Zeeland, and it is doubtful that the weak authorities who did exist in those parts could have managed the necessary water works by themselves, given their limited power. Though the authorities always take credit for the creativity of the masses, spontaneous self-organization persists even in the shadow of the state.
When his father died in 1122,
Hartbert van Bierum was consecrated as bishop of Utrecht on July 24, 1139. During his rule, a rebellion occurred in the city of Groningen. After the bishop had put down the rebellion, he made an agreement with the city in which the city was not allowed to build a wall around itself – an agreement which was not kept for long.
In 1150
When Emperor Frederick Barbarossa travelled to the Netherlands in 1165, to settle the dispute between Floris III, Count of Holland and Godfrey van Rhenen the bishop of Utrecht over the Frisian territories, he came up with a solution which was virtually guaranteed to keep things as they were. He ruled that the power in the disputed lands should be wielded by both the counts and the bishops in condominium. Count and bishop should together chose a vice-count to rule in their stead. When they could not agree on a candidate, the emperor could name the vice-count himself. Because this system of government could only function when the bishop of Utrecht was a partisan of the count of Holland, usually when a younger brother of the count was named as bishop of Utrecht, usually the status quo remained. When there was a weak bishop the influence of the count in the Frisian territories was greater, but usually still limited to the coastal region opposite Holland and the important trade city of Staveren. When there was a strong bishop the influence of Holland and Utrecht cancelled each other out.
Sicko Sjaerdema was elected as the eighth potestaat by the men of Friesland in 1237. Count William II of Holland offered Sicko regional rule on the Friesian lands.[15][unreliable source?]
Friso-Hollandic Wars (1256–1422)
Friso-Hollandic Wars | |||||||
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Frisia | |||||||
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West Frisian War (1256–1289)
The Frisian freedom was recognized by the
It's now time to finally give the old Frisian Freedom the death blow...
In 1272 Floris unsuccessfully attacked the Frisians in a first attempt to retrieve the body of his father. In 1274 he faced an uprising by nobles led by the powerful lords
In 1282 Floris again attacked the troublesome Frisians in the north, defeating them at the battle of Vronen, and succeeded in retrieving the body of his father. Unlike William II and his predecessors, this time, Floris V did not attack West Friesland from the south, but rather, he built a fleet, sailed around the coast, and came at his enemies from the rear. With this strategy, he succeeded in conquering several regions. It took the disastrous flood of 1287 and 1288 for him to finally break the resistance posed by the West Frisians. Floris V, Count of Holland succeeded in annexing West Frisia,[18] but it was his successor John I, who achieved ultimate victory over the West Frisians in 1297. After John died without descendants in 1299, the heirs to the county of Holland were the house of Avesnes, who now controlled Hainult, Holland and Zeeland.
In 1323, the Randomes of the
In 1344 the pro-Holland party in Staveren was defeated, and Staveren also broke away from the count's authority. In the same year negotiations took place, but the Frisians had, apparently, stiffened their spines since 1327, and refused to make concessions. With a true knight errant as the new count of Holland, this made war virtually inevitable.
Friso-Hollandic War (1345–1422)
Battle of Warns (1345–1348)
After the Hollandic counts completed their conquest of
Following the death of William IV of Holland, Emperor Louis IV repealed the rights of the Frisians to freedom and granted Friesland to his wife Empress Margaret II, Countess of Hainaut:[20]
Margaret II, Countess of Hainault and to her heirs, excepting the rights of her sisters and after her death, to William I, Duke of Bavaria, and after his decease to Albert I, Duke of Bavaria[21]
Margaret was prepared to hand the three counties over to her son William I, Duke of Bavaria, but only under certain preconditions. This led to a flare-up of the civil war between the Hook and Cod factions, with the
Long Truce (1348–1396)
After the Frisians had expressed regret for the death of William IV, on 2 May 1348, the way was free for negotiations about a truce, which went into effect on 22 June. The 'Cods' delivered the countship to William I, Duke of Bavaria, who, as it turned out, came back mad from a trip to England in 1357. Thereupon his younger brother, Albert I, Duke of Bavaria, was called to Holland to succeed him, which led to another flare-up in the civil war when a third brother,
On 9 September 1361 an assembly took place in the city of Groningen with the participation of judges from Westergo, Oostergo, Humsterland, Hunsingo, Fivelingo, Oldambt, Reiderland, Eemsland and Broekmerland, together with monarchs and other clergymen. It was decided to renew the legendary covenant of the Opstalboom for a period of six years, while also agreeing that from now on the meetings would take place every year in the A-church in Groningen.[22] A large number of treaties and meetings were concluded in the following years.[23] The city was also presented as a strongly Frisian town, and as a champion of the Frisian freedom, and that the power of the city also enabled it to monitor compliance with those judgments.
Following an economic downturn that began in
The main reasons for this sudden return to prominence of the Frisian matter, seem to have had virtually nothing to do with the Frisians themselves. In Holland, the leaders of the 'Hook' party had been banned since 1393, and
Invasion of Frisia (1396–1399)
Albert I, Duke of Bavaria received support from the Kings of England and France and the Duke of Burgundy, who all sent contingents of knights and men-at-arms. To respond to this threat, the Vetkopers and Schieringers briefly put aside their differences and elected Juw Juwinga, a headling from the city of Bolsward, as the eleventh potestaat of Friesland. He advised luring the enemy into Friesland, where they were strongest. In August 1396 an army of perhaps 9,000 men, led by Albert and William of Ostrevant, landed near Kuinre, which was actually just outside the Frisian borders. However, the Schieringers were waiting for them on the coastline, and the landing cost the Hollanders many lives. After the landing the Frisian strategy was to prevent the Hollanders from leaving the coast and coming inland. Juw Juwinga was one of only a few who argued against this strategy, saying that the Frisians should go home and let the Hollanders try to fight the marshy terrain. He was, however, outvoted.
On 29 August a battle took place at the stronghold of Kuinre. The Frisians were drawn up in a trench they had dug, behind an earthen wall. The Hollanders stormed the wall and a group of Hainautian nobles managed to get into the trench and break through the Frisian line, then attack it from the rear. At this, the Frisians broke and fled; numbers of casualties on their side range from 400 to 3,000. Most chronicles name Juw Juwinga as among the Frisian dead. After the battle, Albert of Bavaria remained at Kuinre for a few more days, but, as Juw Juwinga had predicted, he found it very difficult to operate in the marshy terrain with an army of knights. Furthermore, it started to rain all day, while the sea got more and more tempestuous. On 6 September he gave up and went home, after a campaign of only ten days and with no gains other than revenge for the defeat of 1345 to show for it.
The Schieringers
In 1398 a new large scale campaign was launched. The army, led by
In September 1398, new problems arose for the Hollanders: an insurrection against their rule broke out in
In April a new insurrection broke out in
While he waited for reinforcements from Holland, William sent Gerard of Heemskerk, Lord of Oosthuizen around the coast of Westergo and Oostergo to reinforce the garrison of Dokkum. On 28 May, William set out from Staveren with his main force. He crossed overland to the village of
Meanwhile, the Hollandic army building a fortress at Ter Luine had the city of Groningen worried. In the first week of June the city asked the bishop of Utrecht and the IJssel cities of Deventer, Kampen, and Zwolle for military assistance. Furthermore, Groningen allied itself with the Schieringers in Hunsingo, Fivelgo and Oldambt, who were afraid they would be driven from their lands if the Hollanders – and with them the Vetkopers – won the day. In Fivelgo, the Schieringers burned down the vicarage of Westeremden and they captured a fortress and drowned the Hollanders the Damsterdiep. However, the Schieringers realised they could not defeat the main Hollandic force at Ter Luine. So, instead they sought refuge in the city of Groningen, which almost doubled its garrison. The Schieringers and Groningers together attacked the fortress at Ter Luine, but they were beaten back.
Eventually William realised he was getting nowhere, and decided to return to Staveren while leaving Ter Luine garrisoned. This retreat was made around the Frisian coast, not overland as he had come, and an incident during it illustrated how little control the Hollanders had left in the eastern part of Oostergo: when two Hollandic boats were stranded by the tide, they were attacked by the Frisians from Achtkarspelen and Kollumerland, and burned with all their passengers and crew.
Meanwhile, in the rest of Oostergo and in
By September it had become a general uprising and the Hollanders were driven into retreat everywhere. The fortress at Ter Luine was taken relatively early, probably in the middle of July. It was besieged by a large Frisian force and stormed day and night. The garrison of 200 men was not a match for this and asked for a free retreat, which was granted. Thereupon the city of Dokkum was besieged by Frisians from Oostergo, Achtkarspelen and the Frisian territories across the Lauwers, as well as by men of Groningen. The garrison surrendered around the beginning of September. Close to Leeuwarden the Cammingaburg, the castle of Gerard Camminga, one of Albert's main supporters in Oostergo, was also besieged and captured. Close to the city of Sneek the same fate befell the Rodenburg, the castle of Renik of Sneek, one of Albert's supporters in southern Westergo. Most of the Vetkoper headlings Albert had appointed to prominent positions had to flee to Holland at this point. Some Vetkopers like Sjoerd Wiarda and Haring Harinxma defected to the Schieringers. Thereafter Sjoerd Wiarda was elected the fifteenth potestaat by the Schieringers of Oostergo and Haring Harinxma was elected the sixteenth potestaat by the Schieringers of Westergo.
Siege of Staveren (1399–1411)
In the autumn of 1399 the Frisians began the siege of Staveren, the last city still under the control of the Hollanders. The Frisians could not take the city, and the Hollanders could not control the countryside.
The six-year truce between Holland and the Frisians came to an end in the winter of 1403–1404, when it was violated by latent hostilities, mainly initiated from the side of the Frisians, who were still determined to retake Staveren. At this time, Holland was, however, yet again preoccupied with its own internal affairs. On 16 December 1404, Albert of Bavaria died, and was succeeded as count of Holland, Zeeland and Hainaut by William II, Duke of Bavaria
From 1404 to 1406 a furious
William did not immediately react to this setback; he had been receiving messages of the raids his 'Hook' enemy William, Lord of Arkel was making on his territories. So in June 1411 he made a truce with the Frisians, which was renewed in the following month. When he began organising a campaign for the middle of August, the Frisians became somewhat more accommodating, and a three-year truce could be negotiated, and the campaign was called off. Under the terms of this truce Hollandic merchants got access to coastal towns and villages in Oostergo and Westergo from Dokkum in the northeast all the way around to Lemmer in the southeast; the Vetkoper refugees were allowed to return home; and William was awarded a large sum of money.
Great Frisian War (1413–1422)
Great Frisian War | |||||||
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Part of the conflicts between the Skieringers and Fetkeapers and the Heeckerens and Bronckhorsts | |||||||
The Frisian coast around 1300 | |||||||
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Pro-Skieringers
Supported by: Holland (from 1421) |
Allies
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John III |
Tensions rose again in August 1413, when pirates from Emden attacked Everd Idzinga's servants. Idzinga was an ally of Keno II tom Brok who took the matter seriously and referred the matter to the council of the city of Groningen. The council agreed with Keno and forced Hisko Abdena to compensate the damage. When the payment was not made on time, Keno felt that his honor had been compromised, and he attacked the city of Emden, which was the capital of the Abdena family. After a brief struggle in East Frisia, on October 21, 1413, Emden fell into the hands of Keno II tom Brok and Hisko Abdena fled to the Ommelanden. When he arrived at the city of Groningen, it appeared to be strongly influenced by the Vetkopers, as the city council refused to admit him. This aroused the anger of the local Schieringers. Led by Coppen Jarges, the city council was pushed aside and Hisko was allowed to enter the city. The Vetkopers from Groningen and the Ommelanden sought refuge with Keno, who set himself up as a leader. Tom Brok captured Termunten, west of the Ems river, and became such a threat to Groningen, that church treasures were melted down to pay for a mercenary army to protect the city. The Allied party made plans to regain possession of Groningen and brought together a large fleet. While the fleet waited for the arrival of the Schieringers, many Ommelanden allies of Keno tom Brok came together in Eelde.
In the night of 14 September 1415 the Vetkopers took Groningen. When the Keno fleet landed, Coppen fled with the Schieringer army to Kampen and from there to Sneek and later to Bolsward. Coppen wanted to return as quickly as possible to regain control of Groningen and re-formed his armed forces in Westerlauwers Friesland. He also expanded it by convincing other Schieringers to fight against Keno and his party. He received unexpected help from Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor. The center of gravity of the war shifted from East Friesland and the city of Groningen, to the west of the Ommelanden.
At this point, the Schieringers were in power in
William II, Duke of Bavaria died on 31 May 1417, without having achieved anything else with regard to the Frisian war. His death caused a renewed flare-up of the Hook and Cod wars, when his younger brother John III, Duke of Bavaria, with the support of the Cods, tried to take the countship from William's daughter Jacqueline, Countess of Hainaut, who had the support of the Hooks. As a result of the succession conflict, the status of the Frisian freedom was reaffirmed by Emperor Sigismund.
Due to the defeat at Okswerderzijl, the Schieringer party in Friesland was seriously weakened. The Schieringers sought help and thought they had found it with the Roman king Sigismund. Although he promised support, he did not send military forces. This allowed the Allied army in Achtkarspelen to continue unimpeded to impose their will on the Schieringers in Westerlauwers Friesland. Only at sea did they succeed in bothering the Allies - through piracy. For the pirates, the city of Dokkum with its fortifications was of great strategic importance. That is why the Allied army, under the leadership of Focko Ukena, attacked it in 1418. It didn't take them much trouble to get hold of the city. Dokkum was burned and militarily rendered harmless by demolishing the city walls. The majority of the armed Schieringers, however, remained at the Ezumazijl stins, where the battle was moving towards. Things were much worse at Ezumazijl than at Dokkum – the attackers had almost given up, when the defenders surrendered and the fortress was taken.
By defeating the Schieringers on their own soil, the Allies delivered the Schieringers a crushing blow. The power of the Schieringers was as good as broken and they were willing to make peace with the victors. To stop the looting, they paid an estimate of several thousand Franconian shields. After that, the Allied army left and the peace talks started. The talks were at an advanced stage when on 29 August 1419 the Schieringers won a major victory over a Vetkoper army close to the city of Franeker, the capital of Westergo.
The Schieringers went in search of new allies, this way they strengthened a number of attacks on Vetkoperse strongholds in Westerlauwers Friesland. On April 30, 1420, they conquered the city of Bolsward from the Vetkopers. The Allies reacted immediately and under the leadership of Ukena a fleet sailed via the Vlie towards Hindeloopen. The Schieringers were surprised by the rapid arrival of Ukena, but managed to get an army up and running soon. The leadership of this army was again in the hands of Sikke Sjaarda and on 12 May 1420 both armies were facing each other at Hindeloopen. For Ukena and Sikke it was the second time they met on the battlefield, and again Ukena came out as the victor. He imprisoned many Schieringers, but a large number managed to escape to Sloten and Stavoren. Ukena went to Sloten, where Sikke was staying, and besieged the city.
This led the besieged Schieringers to openly start negotiations with
After that, the Schieringers recaptured
What followed was a Schieringer insurrection against the Hollanders, which made a very complex situation even more opaque. From this point on, everyone fought almost everyone, and the Hollanders were driven out in numerous places. The Hollandic fortress at Lemmer was captured on 18 January 1422 by Frisians from Doniawerstal, its commander was taken prisoner and executed. The peace of Groningen (1422) marked the end of the expansion from Holland to Friesland. The alliance between Groningen and Westerkwartier was later extended to the other Ommelanden and marked the emergence of the Groningen region.
On 1 February after nine years of war, all parties involved met at Groningen to finally make peace. One of the most important points laid down in the treaty was the maintenance of Frisian freedom; foreign rulers were banned from Friesland. This took place behind John of Bavaria's back, and when he got wind of it, demanded it be rescinded. But at this point he had lost almost all his support in the Frisian territories. His last stronghold there was the city of Dokkum, on the north coast, which was held for him mainly by privateers, who preyed on the ships plying the trade route along the North Sea coast. At the end of May a fleet from the cities of Groningen, Hamburg, and Lübeck sailed to Dokkum, and drove the privateers out, thus depriving John of this last foothold on Frisian soil, marking the end of Hollandic expansion into Friesland. In the middle of June 1422, John contacted his old Schieringer allies to see whether or not there would be any support for him left at all if he organised a new campaign to Friesland. There was not. Afterwards another truce was concluded between Holland and the Frisians, which was extended again and again without many difficulties.
Struggle for East Frisia (1422–1464)
After the war ended, most of Hisko Abdena's followers returned to their guarantors and
Focko's authoritarian behavior and high taxes, however, quickly aroused much opposition. In 1428 the city of Groningen had already made an alliance with
The city of
After the death of Ulrich I, Count of East Frisia, his widow Theda ruled in the name of their children, who were still minors. She added the lordship of Fredeburg to the county. Under her son Edzard I, there were quarrels with the chieftains of the Harlingerland and the Jeverland and with the prince-bishop of Münster and the Hansa-city of Hamburg. Jeverland and Harlingerland remained independent, but Butjadingen became subject to East Frisian authority.
Vetkopers and Schieringers strike back (1464–1498)
Beer riots (1487)
In July 1487, a few farmers in Leeuwarden were drinking kuit, a beer from Haarlem, in the house of a beertapper. The Schieringer farmers did not care about the prohibition of the Vetkopers. This fact comes immediately to the ears of the brewers; they storm into the house, which was probably located in the Hoekster-end, find the transgressors of the ordinance, and forbid them to drink Haarlem kuit. The farmers, who had been drinking the beer for a long time already, are not in the mood to obey. People start to fight. As time progresses, more citizens approach the clamor, forcing themselves into the house in order to help the brewers fight the farmers. The farmers walked out of the beer house, and fled to Amelandshuis. The citinzenry of Leeuwarden resented the Haarlem beer drinking farmers so much, "that they came with their guns to the stins, and wanted the transgressors of their prohibition in their hands." Pieter Cammingha, a Schieringer, was not a man to obey the command of those who surrounded his house. He was unwilling to give a couple of defenseless farmers, who by chance had fled to him, to the fury of a mob. Pieter called out to them:
To the citizens and community, which were around the house: Ye good citizens! These man, who fled to my house, them I can hardly just throw out, now that they have fled to me and desire to have my protection. No, I do not want to surrender those poor refugees now, but as Schepen of Leeuwarden I promise that justice will be done. Even though there only was a transgression of a beer ordinance, of which I disapprove, there has been a fight, and tomorrow the case will be brought before the common council of Leeuwarden. Against this I would not resist.
But although to quiet in Leeuwarden now had more or less returned, outside a heavy tempest broke loose. Everywhere in Oostergoo and Westergoo, where the Schieringers had power, were the bells ringing to call them to arms. On 24 July 1487, together with the cities of Sneek and Franeker, the Schrieringers had brought together a force of 8000 men at the Barrahuis, about an hour south of Leeuwarden. With this they meant to attack and humiliate the Vetkoper city. The lordships and citizens set up a council, talked about the proposal, and let Jouke, pastor of the nearby Goutum, write a letter to the city of Leeuwarden, that truly commends the sensibility of the leaders of the Schieringers.
They proposed simply the restoration of the treaty of April 1482: "Everyone would be able to freely buy and sell, where-ever it pleases them; everyone would be able to peacefully walk and exist amongst others; each would in his honor, state and liberties stay as before."
As soon as the letter in Leeuwarden was read to all the citizens, Pieter Sibrantszoon, alderman of the city, gave the governance the advice to seal the letter and send it back, as Leeuwarden was not harmed in any way by the clauses of this letter. However, his advice fell on deaf ears. A whole group of citizens of Leeuwarden shouted that they would immediately beat to death those who would seal the letter, for they did not want to allow those from Westergoe to buy from or sell to those in Oostergoe.
The Schieringers did not hesitate to march from Barrahuis with all of their forces, when they heard that the Leeuwarders would not seal their letter. They attacked the city at the same day at three o'clock, at the east side near the Gardens. There the city was at that time still open. Nevertheless the Leeuwarders defended bravely, "devoutly", against the first attack, and the Schieringers left four deaths on that location. But they were not deterred by this; they repeated the attack so powerfully, that, after some of the citizens had been killed, the others fled their so bravely manned defenses and the Schieringers conquered the city. The Schieringers murdered Pieter Sibrantszoon in cold blood, after he had confessed. The richest citizens were captured and locked away in Sneek or in a countryside stinsen; the whole city was looted and robbed. Worp Lieuweszoon of Boxum was granted the control of the city by the Schieringers. Many citizens, who had fled to the defenses at the non-attacked side, went to Ige Galama of Noordwolde, the leader of all the Vetkopers in Westergoe. Strengthened by his power and troops, the Vetkoper Leeuwarders launched a guerilla war of pillage and looting against the Schieringer Sneekers.[28]
Schieringer sell-out (1492–1498)
After the beer riots,
In 1495 Nittert Fox occupied Bolsward and the town of Workum had to pay money to stay safe. Later on Fox and his army sought shelter in Sneek. The Schieringers Bokke Harinxma and grietman Louw Donia tried to flee the city, but were imprisoned by Fox. Fox demanded ransom for the two men. The people of Sneek asked the city of Groningen to help out. On January 14, 1496, 6,000 Forest Frisians (Frisians from around Zetel, Driefel and Schweinebrück) attacked Sneek, but were defeated by Nittert Fox and 800 Saxon soldiers. The Saxons won the victory by keeping their battlefields locked and using the shotgun-loaded siege cannons of Sneek as field artillery. In 1498 Fox and his army raided the Westerkwartier in the province of Groningen. He was employed by the duke of Saxony, Albert III, who together with Edzard I, Count of East Frisia struggled for power in Middle-Frisia. This led to a battle at Noordhorn between Fox's army and the army of the city of Groningen. This battle was won by Fox's army, but one Fox's officers was killed. To get revenge, Noordhorn and Zuidhorn were burnt down. The chieftains of the Ommelanden negotiated with Fox to avoid further destruction and paid ransom.
On February 9, 1498, a Saxon troop force of over 1500 countrymen was led by Tjerk Walta in Friesland. They come from the former hiring army of
End of freedom (1498–1523)
Remaining conquest (1498–1515)
To save money, Albrecht sent part of his large army home, but nearly a thousand soldiers remained under his service. Even with the smaller army, he thought the Saxon dominion could still be further strengthened.
On the early hours of Sunday morning, on June 10, 1498, the Saxon army left Starum and went down to the High Cliff. The main force of the Forest Frisians met at a Murnser Cliff on a sail and waited for reinforcements from Leeuwarden. When Schaumberg realized that there were four times as many Frisians as his own army, Fuchs devises a battle plan. He does not want the army to fight in a swampy void that can also be submerged and decides to strike in battle on the Frisians, then at half way to turn around and simulate a flight to get the Frisians past the sail . However, that plan fails because the Frisians remain stuck.
The Saxon army then crosses a path towards Warns and can reach a bridge over the Potsleat. Schaumberch also launches three more ships with artillery on the water. Again he raises his army in battle, the cannons are straightened and the houses of the village set on fire to challenge the Frisians. In the Frisians there was no clear leadership. Opinions were divided, many wanted to fight away and another crowd waited for the reinforcements. Some did not want to wait any longer and walked forward on their own, confronting the enemy and not in closed formation, but "feeding intuit" on the run. The others remained standing, resulting in two gaps.
Before the first division of the Frisians with straight spikes reached the front line of the Germans, large and small shells were shot. The Frisians aimed too high and only one German soldier was killed. However, the hail-loaded firearms of the Germans had a very large effect, for the first Frisians were on the run. The princes took to their backs, so everyone started running for his life. Peter of Thabor called it a disgrace that they fled without "craftsmanship".
In 1500, the
In 1514,
As a result of all the fighting, in 1515, George (who only actually controlled Leeuwarden, Harlingen and Franeker) sold Friesland to the future Emperor Charles V (then Duke of Burgundy) for the very moderate price of 100,000 florins.[33] Charles appointed Floris van Egmont as the first Stadtholder of Friesland.
Frisian Peasant Rebellion (1515–1523)
Frisian peasant rebellion | |
---|---|
Friesland | |
Result | Suppression of the rebellion |
Within a short time, occupation by the Duke and his
Under the leadership of Donia, they employed guerrilla tactics and achieved several victories such as the successful siege of two Hollandic castles and the city of Medemblik. They also besieged Bloemkamp Abbey until they were driven off by the troops of Lenard Swartsenburg.[36] Donia also targeted ships that travelled the Zuiderzee and was very active in 1517, when he used his "signal ships" to attack ships in the region of the West Frisian coast, to which he also transported Geldrian forces, from the Duchy of Geldern, setting them ashore at Medemblik. Donia bore a personal enmity to Medemblik and its inhabitants as, in earlier years, soldiers from Medemblik had cooperated with the Dutch army commanded by Duke Charles, the future Emperor.[37] Donia sank 28 Dutch ships, earning him the title "Cross of the Dutchmen".[38]
The rebels also received financial support from
Because Charles V needed to consolidate the Spanish throne and manoeuver to become Holy Roman Emperor, he lifted the Imperial ban against Edzard and invested him with
In 1519, Donia's health deteriorated. He retired to his farm where he died in 1520. He is buried in Sneek in the 15th-century Groote Kerk.[39] Donia's Lieutenant Wijerd Jelckama took over the command of his forces, which then comprised over 4,000 soldiers. Jelckama also achieved some minor victories, but proved to be a less competent commander and slowly lost men. Jelckama and his soldiers indulged in acts of piracy and sacked many villages in the Frisian lands, losing the trust and support of their own people. The fact that Jelckama was less charismatic also cost him: he forged less fruitful alliances and lost more than he made. In 1522, the Habsburg force under Georg Schenck van Toutenburg resumed the offensive and pushed the Guelders forces out of Frisia. Now the tides had turned against the rebels, Charles II, Duke of Guelders withdrew his support. Losing their financial support, the rebels could then no longer afford to pay their mercenary army.
After this series of defeats, Wijerd Jelckama and the remainder of the Frisian army were captured in 1523. Jelckama and the remaining Frisian and Gelderian rebels were decapitated, whereas Jancko Douwama was imprisoned in Vilvoorde, where he died without trial after ten years of suffering.[38][40] After Douwama, for 25 years the rural Frisians were led by Syds Tjaerda, alderman of Dokkum and a member of the Provincial Council of Friesland. Tjaerda opposed the centralization urge of Charles V and demanded the old rights: "States may come together if they wish; the Frisians may choose their own clergy." However, they no longer had the means to fight for these rights. Charles and George Schenck would go on to conquer Groningen and the Ommelanden, in the Battle of Heiligerlee, bringing an end to the Duke of Guelders' lordship over the region.
Frisia was now firmly in the hands of the Habsburgs, it was renamed into the
See also
References
- ^ a b Schmidt, Heinrich (1975). Politische Geschichte Ostfrieslands [Political history of East Frisia] (in German). p. 22 ff.
- ^ Verweij, M. (2014). De zusterkerk van Anloo: de SS. Michele e Magno te Rome, Magnuslezing [The sister church of Anloo: the SS. Michele and Magno in Rome, Magnuslezing] (in Western Frisian).
- ^ "Magnus Choice. The Origins of the Frisian Freedom". frisia-coast-trail. 23 September 2019. Retrieved 22 February 2020.
- ^ Vries, Oebele (1999). "Staatsvorming in Zwitserland en Friesland in de late middeleeuwen. Een vergelijking" [State formation in Switzerland and Friesland in the late Middle Ages. A comparison]. Fryslân, Staat en Macht 1450–1650. Bijdragen aan het historisch congres te Leeuwarden 3–5 Juni 1998 (in Western Frisian).
- ^ Coupland, Poachers to Gamekeepers
- ^ a b c d e "Norsemen in the Low Countries: Extracts from the Annales Bertiniani". Archived from the original on 14 June 2011.
- ^ van der Tuuk, Luit. "The Danish role in the decay of Dorestad". Archived from the original on 12 November 2013.
- ^ "Norsemen in the Low Countries: Extracts from the Annales Fuldenses, 850 entry".
- ISBN 978-0860789918.
- ^ von Simson, Bernhard, ed. (1909) [c. 885]. Annales Xantenses et Annales Vedastini, Monumenta Germaniae Historica, Scriptores rerum Germanicarum in usum scholarum separatim editi. Hanover.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^ "The Abbey of Egmond and the rise of the Gerulfings". frisia-coast-trail. 19 July 2019. Retrieved 22 February 2020.
- ^ Geert Mak, "Drie verleidingen onder de Opstalsboom", lecture, 6 June 2006
- ^ Gelderloos, Peter (2010). Anarchy Works.
- ^ H. Van Der Linden, "Een Nieuwe Overheidsinstelling: Het Waterschap circa 1100–1400", in D. P. Blok, Algemene Geschiednis der Nederlanden, part III. Haarlem: Fibula van Dishoeck, 1982, p. 64. Author's translation.
- ^ "The letter of Sicko to Count Willem II" (PDF).[permanent dead link]
- ^ Annales Erphordenses: "Abel rex Dacie" was killed "1252 pridie Kal Iul" by the Frisians
- ISBN 9789065508072 – via Google Books.
- ^ Delaissé, L. M. J. (1968). A Century of Dutch Manuscript Illumination. California Studies in the History of Art. University of California Press and Cambridge University Press. p. 5.
- ^ "Kwartierstaat van Trijntje Murks de Jong" [Pedigree of Trijntje Murks de Jong] (in Dutch). Archived from the original on 2009-05-22.
- ^ Sury, Geoffroy G., Bayern Straubing Hennegau : la Maison de Bavière en Hainaut, XIVe–XVe s., Brussels, 2010 (2nd ed.), p. 66. French: Un parchemin daté du 7/09/1346 à Francfort, dont le sceau est détruit, énonce que Louis IV de Bavière empereur du St.-Empire Romain Germanique s'engage pour lui-même et ses héritiers, et au nom de son épouse, l'impératrice Marguerite, à ne jamais céder, diviser ni engager les comtés de Hainaut, de Hollande, de Zélande et de la seigneurie de Frise, qui appartiennent à la dite Marguerite (Marguerite II (d'Avesnes) comtesse de Hainaut) et à ses héritiers, sauf les droits de ses soeurs, et, après le décès de cette dernière, à leur deuxième fils, Guillaume (futur Guillaume III comte de Hainaut) duc (I) de Bavière, et, celui-ci décédé, à Albert (futur Albert Ier comte de Hainaut), duc (I) de Bavière, leur troisième fils.
- ^ G. Wymans, Inventaire analytique du chartrier de la Trésorerie des comtes de Hainaut, the State Archives, Palais des Expos, Aux Grands Près, Mons tel. 065/400460 order number (slide) 868, Editions A.G.R., Brussels, 1985, p. 190. (Or. sur pch.; dét. (Francfort, 7/09/1346.)
- ^ Wio Joustra, "Groningers bewierookten Friese vrijheid", interview with Oebele Vries, Leeuwarder Courant, 26 May 2012
- ^ Nip, R. I. A. "Hoofdelingen en stedelingen, een wereld van verschil ca. 1350-1536", in Geschiedenis van Groningen, part I, p. 239, Zwolle, 2008. In this source the terms 'Opstalsboom' and 'Opstalsboomverbond' are used.
- ^ John M. Deep (2001), Medieval Germany: An Encyclopedia, Germany.
- ^ N. E. Algra, "Frisia, the Empire and the Eighth Statute". in: Rolf H. Bremmer (ed.), Approaches to Old Frisian Philology (1998), p. 65.
- ^ Ernst Friedländer: Ostfriesisches Urkundenbuch, vol. 1, Emden, 1878, No. 324
- ^ Dirk Jan Henstra (2000). Evolution of the Money Standard in Medieval Frisia. p. 229
- ^ Dirks, J. The beer-revolt at Leeuwarden in the year 1487, its causes and consequences.
- ^ Markus Meumann, Jörg Rogge, eds. (2006). "Die besetzte 'res publica': Zum Verhältnis von ziviler Obrigkeit und militärischer Herrschaft in besetzten Gebieten vom Spätmittelalter bis zum 18. Jahrhundert", p. 137, Papers from a conference held September 20–21, 2001, at the Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg. LIT Verlag Berlin–Hamburg–Münster
- ^ The New Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 1993, p. 214.
- ^ Marten Prak (2005), The Dutch Republic in the Seventeenth Century: The Golden Age
- ^ Douwama, Jancko: A man of honour. Anthology of the writings of Jancko Douwama, annotated by Martha Kist en Harmen Wind, 2003. Douwama, Jancko: Een man van eer.
- ^ One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "George the Bearded". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
- ISBN 90-70010-13-5.
- ISBN 90-70010-13-5.)
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link - ^ Kok, Jacobus; Fokke, Dan (1790). "Byvoegzels op het Vaderlandsch woordenboek" [Additions to the Vaderlandsch dictionary] (in Dutch). Johannes Allart. Retrieved 23 July 2015 – via Google Books.
- ^ "Kasteel van Medemblik in de 16e eeuw". Home Planet. Retrieved 2008-10-13.
- ^ a b "The zweihänder sword that belonged to Grutte Pier (1480–1520), Friesian pirate and warlord". Museum of Artifacts Blogspot. Archived from the original on 23 April 2018. Retrieved 22 April 2018.
- ^ "Martinikerk". Sneek. Retrieved 22 April 2018.
- ^ "Wijerd Jelckama". geni_family_tree. 1490. Retrieved 2018-04-22.
- ISBN 90-279-3128-3.
- ISBN 90-272-1856-0.
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