Fritz Haber
Fritz Haber | |
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Breslau, Province of Silesia, Kingdom of Prussia[1] | |
Died | 29 January 1934 Basel, Switzerland | (aged 65)
Nationality | German[2][3] |
Alma mater | |
Known for |
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Spouses | |
Children | 3 |
Awards |
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Scientific career | |
Fields | Physical chemistry |
Institutions |
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Fritz Haber (German pronunciation:
Haber, a known German nationalist, is also considered the "father of
After the
Early life and education
Haber was born in
Haber was the son of Siegfried and Paula Haber, who were first cousins who married in spite of considerable opposition from their families.[13] Haber's father Siegfried was a well-known merchant in the town, who had founded his own business in dye pigments, paints and pharmaceuticals.[12]: 6 Paula experienced a difficult pregnancy and died three weeks after Fritz's birth, leaving Siegfried devastated and Fritz in the care of various aunts.[12]: 11 When Haber was about six years old, Siegfried remarried to Hedwig Hamburger. Siegfried and his second wife had three daughters: Else, Helene and Frieda. Although his relationship with his father was distant and often difficult due to Fritz being associated with the death of his first wife, Haber developed close relationships with his step-mother and his half-sisters.[12]: 7 Siegfried displayed love and care for his three daughters but never fully accepted Fritz as his son.[14]
By the time Fritz was born, the Habers had to some extent assimilated into German society. He attended primary school at the Johanneum School, a "simultaneous school" open equally to Catholic, Protestant, and Jewish students.[12]: 12 At age 11, he went to school at the St. Elizabeth classical school, in a class evenly divided between Protestant and Jewish students.[12]: 14 His family supported the Jewish community and continued to observe many Jewish traditions, but were not strongly associated with the synagogue.[12]: 15 Haber identified strongly as German, less so as Jewish.[12]: 15
Haber successfully passed his examinations at the St. Elizabeth High School in Breslau in September 1886.[12]: 16 Although his father wished him to apprentice in the dye company, Haber obtained his father's permission to study chemistry at the Friedrich Wilhelm University in Berlin (today the Humboldt University of Berlin), with the director of the Institute for Chemistry A. W. Hofmann.[12]: 17 Haber was disappointed by his initial winter semester (1886–87) in Berlin, and arranged to attend the Heidelberg University for the summer semester of 1887, where he studied under Robert Bunsen.[12]: 18 He then returned to Berlin, to the Technical College of Charlottenburg (today the Technical University of Berlin).[12]: 19
In the summer of 1889, Haber was conscripted and left university to perform his
Liebermann assigned Haber to work on reactions with piperonal for his thesis topic, published as Ueber einige Derivate des Piperonals (About a Few piperonal Derivatives) in 1891.[15] Haber received his doctorate cum laude from Friedrich Wilhelm University in May 1891, after presenting his work to a board of examiners from the University of Berlin, since Charlottenburg was not yet accredited to grant doctorates.[12]: 22
With his degree, Haber returned to Breslau to work at his father's chemical business, where their relationship continued to have difficulties. Through Siegfried's connections, Haber was assigned a series of practical apprenticeships in different chemical companies to gain experience. These included Grünwald and Company (a Budapest distillery), an Austrian ammonia-sodium factory, and the Feldmühle paper and cellulose works. These experiences drove Haber to learn more about technical processes, and persuaded his father to let him spend a semester at the Polytechnic College in
Haber had received a PhD in chemistry by this time, but his father required him to take handwriting courses and become a salesman to learn more about the company. Haber urged his father to transfer from natural to synthetic dyes, but his father refused. Eventually, his father followed global business trends and switched to synthetic dyes. Haber's next suggestion was for his father to purchase calcium hypochlorite which at the time was the only known treatment of cholera. The current cholera epidemic ended up being isolated and thus resulted in their possession of a sizeable amount of unused calcium hypochlorite, which is unstable. This caused a rift between Siegfried and Haber, with his father telling him to go back to his university studies as he did not belong in the business world.[11]
Early career
Haber then sought an academic appointment, first working as an independent assistant to
Bunte suggested that Haber examine the thermal decomposition of hydrocarbons. By making careful quantitative analyses, Haber was able to establish that "the thermal stability of the carbon-carbon bond is greater than that of the carbon-hydrogen bond in aromatic compounds and smaller in aliphatic compounds", a classic result in the study of pyrolysis of hydrocarbons. This work became Haber's habilitation thesis.[12]: 40
Haber was appointed a Privatdozent in Bunte's institute, taking on teaching duties related to the area of dye technology, and continuing to work on the combustion of gases. In 1896, the university supported him in travelling to Silesia, Saxony, and Austria to learn about advances in dye technology.[12]: 41
In 1897 Haber made a similar trip to learn about developments in electrochemistry.[12]: 41 He had been interested in the area for some time, and had worked with another privatdozent, Hans Luggin, who gave theoretical lectures in electrochemistry and physical chemistry. Haber's 1898 book Grundriss der technischen Elektrochemie auf theoretischer Grundlage (Outline of technical electrochemistry based on theoretical foundations) attracted considerable attention, particularly his work on the reduction of nitrobenzene. In the book's foreword, Haber expresses his gratitude to Luggin, who died on 5 December 1899.[12]: 42 Haber collaborated with others in the area as well, including Georg Bredig, a student and later an assistant of Wilhelm Ostwald in Leipzig.[12]: 43
Bunte and Engler supported an application for further authorisation of Haber's teaching activities, and on 6 December 1898, Haber was invested with the title of Extraordinarius and an associate professorship, by order of the Grand Duke Friedrich von Baden.[12]: 44
Haber worked in a variety of areas while at Karlsruhe, making significant contributions in several areas. In the area of dye and textiles, he and Friedrich Bran were able to theoretically explain steps in textile printing processes developed by Adolf Holz. Discussions with Carl Engler prompted Haber to explain autoxidation in electrochemical terms, differentiating between dry and wet autoxidation. Haber's examinations of the thermodynamics of the reaction of solids confirmed that Faraday's laws hold for the electrolysis of crystalline salts. This work led to a theoretical basis for the glass electrode and the measurement of electrolytic potentials. Haber's work on irreversible and reversible forms of electrochemical reduction are considered classics in the field of electrochemistry. He also studied the passivity of non-rare metals and the effects of electric current on corrosion of metals.[12]: 55 In addition, Haber published his second book, Thermodynamik technischer Gasreaktionen: sieben Vorlesungen (1905) trans. Thermodynamics of technical gas-reactions: seven lectures (1908), later regarded as "a model of accuracy and critical insight" in the field of chemical thermodynamics.[12]: 56–58
In 1906, Max Le Blanc, chair of the physical chemistry department at Karlsruhe, accepted a position at the University of Leipzig. After receiving recommendations from a search committee, the Ministry of Education in Baden offered the full professorship for physical chemistry at Karlsruhe to Haber, who accepted the offer.[12]: 61
Nobel Prize
During his time at
To further develop the process for large-scale ammonia production, Haber turned to industry. Partnering with
The discovery of a new way of producing ammonia had other significant economic impacts as well. Chile had been a major (and almost unique) exporter of natural deposits such as
The annual world production of synthetic nitrogen fertiliser is currently more than 100 million tons. The food base of half of the current world population is based on the Haber–Bosch process.[19]
Haber was awarded the 1918 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for this work (he actually received the award in 1919).[21] In his acceptance speech for that Nobel Prize Haber commented, "It may be that this solution is not the final one. Nitrogen bacteria teach us that Nature, with her sophisticated forms of the chemistry of living matter, still understands and utilizes methods which we do not as yet know how to imitate."[22]
Haber was also active in the research on
World War I
Haber greeted World War I with enthusiasm, joining 92 other German intellectuals in signing the
A special troop was formed for gas warfare (Pioneer Regiments 35 and 36) under the command of Otto Peterson, with Haber and Friedrich Kerschbaum as advisors. Haber actively recruited physicists, chemists, and other scientists to be transferred to the unit. Future Nobel laureates
Gas warfare in World War I was, in a sense, the war of the chemists, with Haber pitted against French Nobel laureate chemist Victor Grignard. Regarding war and peace, Haber once said, "during peace time a scientist belongs to the World, but during war time he belongs to his country." This was an example of the ethical dilemmas facing chemists at that time.[28]
Haber was a patriotic German who was proud of his service during World War I, for which he was decorated. He was even given the rank of
In his studies of the effects of poison gas, Haber noted that exposure to a low concentration of a poisonous gas for a long time often had the same effect (death) as exposure to a high concentration for a short time. He formulated a simple mathematical relationship between the gas concentration and the necessary exposure time. This relationship became known as Haber's rule.[30][31]
Haber defended gas warfare against accusations that it was inhumane, saying that death was death, by whatever means it was inflicted and referred to history: "The disapproval that the knight had for the man with the firearm is repeated in the soldier who shoots with steel bullets towards the man who confronts him with chemical weapons. [...] The gas weapons are not at all more cruel than the flying iron pieces; on the contrary, the fraction of fatal gas diseases is comparatively smaller, the mutilations are missing".[32]
Haber received much criticism for his involvement in the development of chemical weapons in pre-World War II Germany, both from contemporaries, especially Albert Einstein, and from modern-day scientists.[33][34]
Between World Wars
From 1919 to 1923 Haber continued to be involved in Germany's secret development of chemical weapons, working with Hugo Stoltzenberg, and helping both Spain and Russia in the development of chemical gases.[12]: 169
During the 1920s, scientists working at Haber's institute developed the cyanide gas formulation Zyklon A, which was used as an insecticide, especially as a fumigant in grain stores.[35]
From 1919 to 1925, in response to a request made by German ambassador Wilhelm Solf to Japan for Japanese support for German scholars in times of financial hardship, a Japanese businessman named Hoshi Hajime, the president of Hoshi Pharmaceutical Company, donated two million Reichsmark to the Kaiser Wilhelm Society as the 'Japan Fund' (Hoshi-Ausschuss). Haber was asked to manage the fund, and was invited by Hoshi to Japan in 1924. Haber offered a number of chemical licences to Hoshi's company, but the offers were refused. The money from the Fund was used to support the work of Richard Willstätter, Max Planck, Otto Hahn, Leo Szilard, and others.[36]
In the 1920s, Haber searched exhaustively for a method to extract gold from sea water, and published a number of scientific papers on the subject. After years of research, he concluded that the concentration of gold dissolved in sea water was much lower than that reported by earlier researchers, and that gold extraction from sea water was uneconomic.[11]: 91–98
By 1931, Haber was increasingly concerned about the rise of
Haber and his son Hermann also urged that Haber's children by Charlotte Nathan, at boarding school in Germany, should leave the country.[12]: 181 Charlotte and the children moved to the United Kingdom around 1933 or 1934. After the war, Charlotte's children became British citizens.[12]: 188–189
Personal life and family
Haber met
Clara was a
Her reasons for suicide remain the subject of speculation. There were multiple stresses in the marriage,
Haber married his second wife, Charlotte Nathan, on 25 October 1917 in Berlin.[12]: 183 When out travelling, Fritz was staying at the Adlon Hotel which was near the Deutsche Klub. At this establishment, Fritz met Nathan, who was one of the secretaries and sparked his interest with her accomplishments despite not having extensive experience or education. On the day that he met her, it had been raining and she gave him an umbrella to use to which he replied "I lay the umbrella into your arms and myself and my thanks at your feet". She replied, "I'd rather like the contrary". They began seeing each other and he would soon propose to her. Charlotte rejected the proposal at first due to their large age difference but eventually, she agreed.[11] Charlotte, like Clara, converted from Judaism to Christianity before marrying Haber.[12]: 183 The couple had two children, Eva-Charlotte and Ludwig Fritz ("Lutz").[12]: 186 Again, however, there were conflicts, and the couple were divorced as of 6 December 1927.[12]: 188
Haber and Clara's son, Hermann Haber, lived in France until 1941, but was unable to obtain French citizenship. When Germany invaded France during World War II, Hermann and his wife and three daughters escaped internment on a French ship travelling from Marseilles to the Caribbean. From there, they obtained visas allowing them to immigrate to the United States. Hermann's wife Margarethe died after the end of the war, and Hermann committed suicide in 1946.[12]: 182–183 His oldest daughter, Claire, committed suicide in 1949; also a chemist, she had been told her research into an antidote for the effects of chlorine gas was being set aside, as work on the atomic bomb was taking precedence.[45]
Fritz Haber's other son, Ludwig Fritz Haber (1921–2004), became an eminent British economist and wrote a history of chemical warfare in World War I, The Poisonous Cloud (1986).[46] Hermann's daughter Eva lived in Kenya for many years, returning to England in the 1950s. She died in 2015, leaving three children, five grandchildren, and eight great-grandchildren. Several members of Haber's extended family died in Nazi concentration camps, including his half-sister Frieda's daughter, Hilde Glücksmann, her husband, and their two children.[12]: 235
Death
Haber left Dahlem in August 1933, staying briefly in Paris, Spain, and Switzerland. He was in extremely poor health during these travels. Haber specifically suffered attacks from angina.[47] Repeated angina attacks can cause lasting damage which likely contributed to his death the next year.[12]: 288
In the meantime, some of the scientists who had been Haber's counterparts and competitors in England during World War I now helped him and others to leave Germany. Brigadier
In 1933, during Haber's brief sojourn in England,
Following Haber's wishes, Haber and Clara's son Hermann arranged for Haber to be cremated and buried in Basel's Hörnli Cemetery on 29 September 1934, and for Clara's remains to be removed from Dahlem and re-interred with him on 27 January 1937 (see picture). Albert Einstein, his longtime friend, eulogised Haber with the following words; "Haber's life was the tragedy of the German Jew – the tragedy of unrequited love".[12][49][50]
Estate and legacy
Haber bequeathed his extensive private library to the Sieff Institute, where it was dedicated as the Fritz Haber Library on 29 January 1936. Hermann Haber helped to move the library and gave a speech at the dedication.[12]: 182 It still exists as a private collection in the Weizmann Institute.[51]
In 1981, the Minerva foundation of the Max Planck Society and the Hebrew University of Jerusalem (HUJI) established the Fritz Haber Research Center for Molecular Dynamics, based at the Institute of Chemistry of the Hebrew University. Its purpose is the promotion of Israeli-German scientific collaboration in the field of Molecular Dynamics. The Center's library is also called Fritz Haber Library, but it is not immediately clear if there is any connection to the 1936 homonymous library of the Sieff (now Weizmann) Institute.[citation needed]
The institute most closely associated with his work, the former Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physical Chemistry and Electrochemistry at Dahlem (a suburb of Berlin), was renamed
Awards and honours
- Foreign Honorary Member, American Academy of Arts and Sciences (1914)[11]: 152 [52]
- Nobel Prize in Chemistry (1918)[16]
- Bunsen Medal of the Bunsen Society of Berlin, with Carl Bosch (1918)[53]
- President of the German Chemical Society (1923)[54]: 169
- Wilhelm Exner Medal, 1929
- Honorary Member, Société Chimique de France (1931)[11]: 152
- Honorary Member, Chemical Society of England (1931)[11]: 152
- Honorary Member, Society of Chemical Industry, London, (1931)[11]: 152
- Rumford Medal, American Academy of Arts and Sciences (1932)[55]
- Elected a
- Honorary Member, USSR Academy of Sciences (1932)[11]: 152
- Board of Directors, International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry, 1929–1933; Vice-President, 1931[12]: 271
- Goethe-Medaille für Kunst und Wissenschaft (Goethe Medal for Art and Science) from the President of Germany[54]
Dramatizations and fictionalisations
A fictional description of Haber's life, and in particular his longtime relationship with Albert Einstein, appears in Vern Thiessen's 2003 play Einstein's Gift. Thiessen describes Haber as a tragic figure who strives unsuccessfully throughout his life to evade both his Jewish ancestry and the moral implications of his scientific contributions.[59]
Bread from the Air, Gold from the Sea as another chemical story (R4, 1415, 16 Feb 01). Fritz Haber found a way of making nitrogen compounds from the air. They have two main uses: fertilizers and explosives. His process enabled Germany to produce vast quantities of armaments. (The second part of the title refers to a process for obtaining gold from sea water. It worked, but didn't pay.) There can be few figures with a more interesting life than Haber, from a biographer's point of view. He made German agriculture independent of Chilean saltpetre during the Great War. He received the Nobel Prize for Chemistry, yet there were moves to strip him of the award because of his work on gas warfare. He pointed out, rightly, that most of Nobel's money had come from armaments and the pursuit of war. After Hitler's rise to power, the government forced Haber to resign from his professorship and research jobs because he was Jewish.
The second play was titled The Greater Good and was first broadcast on 23 October 2008.
In 2008, a short film titled Haber depicted Fritz Haber's decision to embark on the gas warfare program and his relationship with his wife.[63] The film was written and directed by Daniel Ragussis.[64][65]
In November 2008, Haber was again played by Anton Lesser in Einstein and Eddington.[66]
In January 2012,
In December 2013, Haber was the subject of a BBC World Service radio programme: "Why has one of the world's most important scientists been forgotten?".[68]
His and his wife's life, including their relationship with the Einsteins, and Haber's wife's suicide, are featured prominently in the novel A Reunion of Ghosts by Judith Claire Mitchell. The characters are named Lenz and Iris Alter.[69]
Haber's life and relationship to Albert Einstein was portrayed in
See also
- Nobel laureates in Chemistry
- List of Jewish Nobel laureates
- Luggin–Haber capillary
References
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- ^ "Fritz Haber | Biography & Facts". Encyclopedia Britannica. Archived from the original on 18 April 2020. Retrieved 19 March 2018.
- ISBN 9780262693134.
- ^ Flavell-While, Claudia. "Fritz Haber and Carl Bosch – Feed the World". www.thechemicalengineer.com. Archived from the original on 19 June 2021. Retrieved 30 April 2021.
- ^ "The Man Who Killed Millions and Saved Billions". YouTube. Archived from the original on 25 October 2023. Retrieved 12 June 2023.
- ^ "Seven Billion Humans: The World Fritz Haber Made". 2 November 2011. Archived from the original on 30 May 2023. Retrieved 12 June 2023.
- ^ "Fritz Haber's Experiments in Life and Death". Archived from the original on 16 May 2019. Retrieved 12 June 2023.
- ^ "No. 2287: Fritz Haber". www.uh.edu. Archived from the original on 9 February 2023. Retrieved 9 February 2023.
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- ^ ISBN 978-0-941901-24-6.
- ISBN 978-0-06-056272-4. Archivedfrom the original on 20 July 2023. Retrieved 8 September 2014.
- ^ Goran, Morris (1967). The Story of Fritz Haber. University of Oklahoma Press.
- ^ "Ueber einige Derivate des piperonals (cover)". Archived from the original on 8 March 2021. Retrieved 8 September 2014.
- ^ a b "Fritz Haber – Biographical". Nobelprize.org. Nobel Media AB 2014. Archived from the original on 12 June 2018. Retrieved 8 September 2014.
- ^ a b Hager 2008, p. 90.
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- ^ Frankfurter Allgemeine Sonntagszeitung. p. 77 (Data from "Nature Geosience").
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- ^ Stern, Fritz; Charles, Daniel; Nasser, Latif; Kaufman, Fred (9 January 2012). "How Do You Solve a Problem Like Fritz Haber?". Radiolab (Interview). Interviewed by Jad Abumrad, Robert Krulwich. New York, NY: WNYC. Archived from the original on 4 November 2020. Retrieved 2 April 2014.
- ^ Clapp, Susannah (5 June 2016). "The Forbidden Zone review – poisoned by a 'higher form of killing'". the Guardian. Archived from the original on 29 July 2022. Retrieved 15 September 2018.
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- ^ "Remembering Controversial Chemist Fritz Haber". The Chemical Blog. Archived from the original on 16 October 2014. Retrieved 23 January 2017.
- ^ A photograph of their gravestone in Hörnli Cemetery, Basel can also be found in the book written by Stoltzenberg.
- S2CID 159561319
- ^ Reznik, Anton. "The Library: Library: Special Collections". weizmann.libguides.com. Archived from the original on 3 February 2022. Retrieved 2 February 2022.
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Sources
- Hager, Thomas (9 September 2008). The Alchemy of Air: A Jewish Genius, a Doomed Tycoon, and the Scientific Discovery That Fed the World but Fueled the Rise of Hitler. Crown. ISBN 978-0-307-44999-3.
Further reading
- Albarelli JR., H. P.: A Terrible Mistake: The Murder of Frank Olson and the CIA's Secret Cold War Experiments – Trine Day LLC, 1st ed., 2009, ISBN 0-9777953-7-3
- Bernstein, Barton J. (1987). "Birth of the U.S. biological warfare program". Scientific American. 256 (6): 116–121. PMID 3296173.
- Charles, Daniel: Master mind: The Rise and Fall of Fritz Haber, the Nobel Laureate Who Launched the Age of Chemical Warfare (New York: Ecco, 2005), ISBN 0-06-056272-2.
- Dunikowska, Magda; Turko, Ludwik 2011 "Fritz Haber: The Damned Scientist". "Angew. Chem. Int. Ed." 50: 10050–10062
- Geissler, Erhard: Biologische Waffen, nicht in Hitlers Arsenalen. Biologische und Toxin-Kampfmittel in Deutschland von 1915–1945. LIT-Verlag, Berlin-Hamburg-Münster, 2nd ed., 1999. ISBN 3-8258-2955-3.
- Geissler, Erhard: "Biological warfare activities in Germany 1923–1945". In: Geissler, Erhard and Moon, John Ellis van Courtland, eds., Biological warfare from the Middle Ages to 1945. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999, ISBN 0-19-829579-0.
- Maddrell, Paul: Spying on Science: Western Intelligence in Divided Germany 1945–1961. Oxford University Press, 2006, ISBN 0-19-926750-2.
- ISBN 978-0-262-69313-4.
- Stern, Fritz: "Together and Apart: Fritz Haber and Albert Einstein", in Einstein's German World. Princeton University Press, 2001
- Stoltzenberg, Dietrich: Fritz Haber: Chemist, Nobel Laureate, German, Jew: A Biography (Chemical Heritage Foundation, 2005), ISBN 0-941901-24-6.
External links
- Fritz Haber on Nobelprize.org including the Nobel Lecture, 2 June 1920 The Synthesis of Ammonia from Its Elements
- HABER – A biographical film about Fritz Haber
- A short biography of Fritz Haber, by Bretislav Friedrich
- Fritz Haber, Encyclopædia Britannica
- "How do you solve a problem like Fritz Haber" on NPR's Radiolab
- Fritz Haber: Jewish chemist whose work led to Zyklon B
- Termination of Employment Letter to Ladislaus Farkas from Fritz Haber
- Newspaper clippings about Fritz Haber in the 20th Century Press Archives of the ZBW
- Chlorine nitrogen and the legacies of Fritz Haber
- The Man Who Killed Millions and Saved Billions