Fulgencio Batista

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Fulgencio Batista
Official portrait, 1940
President of Cuba
In office
March 10, 1952 – December 31, 1958
Prime Minister
See list
Las Villas
Personal details
Born
Rubén Zaldívar

(1901-01-16)January 16, 1901
PAU (1949–1952)
  • PAP
    • (1952–1959)
    Spouses
    • ​
      ​
      (m. 1926; div. 1946)​
    • ​
      ​
      (m. 1946)​
    Children9
    Other namesFulgencio Batista y Zaldívar (full name from 1939)
    Nickname(s)El Hombre, el indio, mulato lindo
    Military service
    AllegianceRepublic of Cuba
    Branch/serviceCuban Army
    Years of service1921–1940
    RankMajor general
    This article is part of a series about
    Fulgencio Batista

    President of Cuba

    1940-1944,1952-1959

    Government

    first

    second

    Legacy

    political career

    Fulgencio Batista y Zaldívar

    military dictator from 1952 to 1958, until he was overthrown in the Cuban Revolution
    .

    Batista initially rose to power as part of the

    1933 Revolt of the Sergeants, which overthrew the provisional government of Carlos Manuel de Céspedes y Quesada. Batista then appointed himself chief of the armed forces, with the rank of colonel, and effectively controlled the five-member "pentarchy" that functioned as the collective head of state. He maintained control through a series of puppet presidents until 1940, when he was elected president on a populist platform.[3][4] He then instated the 1940 Constitution of Cuba[5] and served until 1944. After finishing his term, Batista moved to Florida, returning to Cuba to run for president in 1952. Facing certain electoral defeat, he led a military coup against President Carlos Prío Socarrás that pre-empted the election.[6]

    Back in power and receiving financial, military and logistical support from the

    right to strike. He then aligned with the wealthiest landowners who owned the largest sugar plantations, and presided over a stagnating economy that widened the gap between rich and poor Cubans.[9] Eventually, it reached the point where most of the sugar industry was in U.S. hands, and foreigners owned 70% of the arable land.[10] As such, Batista's repressive government then began to systematically profit from the exploitation of Cuba's commercial interests, by negotiating lucrative relationships both with the American Mafia, who controlled the drug, gambling, and prostitution businesses in Havana, and with large U.S.-based multinational companies who were awarded lucrative contracts.[9][11] To quell the growing discontent amongst the populace—which was subsequently displayed through frequent student riots and demonstrations—Batista established tighter censorship of the media, while also utilizing his Bureau for the Repression of Communist Activities secret police to carry out wide-scale violence, torture and public executions. These murders mounted in 1957, as socialist ideas became more influential. People were killed, with estimates ranging from hundreds to a maximum of 20,000, although this high figure is disputed.[12][13][14]

    These tactics ultimately failed to quell unrest and instead were the catalyst for more widespread resistance. For two years (December 1956 – December 1958)

    strongman and previous military ally Rafael Trujillo held power. Batista eventually found political asylum in António Salazar's Portugal, where he first lived on the island of Madeira and then in Estoril. He was involved in business activities in Spain and was staying there in Guadalmina at the time of his death from a heart attack in 1973.[15]

    Early life

    A young Batista

    Batista was born in the town of Veguita, located in the municipality of Banes, Cuba in 1901 to Belisario Batista Palermo[16] and Carmela Zaldívar González, who had fought in the Cuban War of Independence. He was of Spanish, African, Chinese, and possibly some Taíno descent.[17][18][19] His mother named him Rubén and gave him her last name, Zaldívar. His father did not want to register him as a Batista. In the registration records of the Banes courthouse, he was legally Rubén Zaldívar until 1939, when, as Fulgencio Batista, he became a presidential candidate, and it was discovered that this name did not exist in the birth certificates; he thus had to postpone the presentation of his candidacy and pay 15,000 pesos to the local judge.[2]

    Both Batista's parents are believed to have been of mixed race and one may have had

    rural police). He transferred back to the army as a corporal, becoming secretary to a regimental colonel.[24] In September 1933, he held the rank of sergeant stenographer and as such acted as the secretary of a group of non-commissioned officers who led a "sergeants' conspiracy" for better conditions and improved prospects of promotion.[25]

    1933 coup

    Main article:
    Sergeants' Revolt
    The Pentarchy of 1933 was a five-man Presidency of Cuba, including José M. Irisari, Porfirio Franca, Guillermo Portela, Ramón Grau, and Sergio Carbó. Batista (on the far right) controlled the armed forces.

    In 1933, Batista led an uprising called the

    Sergeants' Revolt, as part of the coup that overthrew the government of Gerardo Machado.[26] Machado was succeeded by Carlos Manuel de Céspedes y Quesada, who lacked a political coalition that could sustain him and was soon replaced.[27]

    A short-lived five-member presidency, known as the

    Ramón Grau San Martín, was made president—and Batista became the Army Chief of Staff, with the rank of colonel, effectively putting him in control of the presidency.[28] The majority of the commissioned officer corps were forced to retire or, some speculate, were killed.[28]

    Cuban ambassador
    , Pedro Fraga

    Grau remained president for just over 100 days before Batista, conspiring with the U.S. envoy Sumner Welles, forced him to resign in January 1934.[26] Grau was replaced by Carlos Mendieta, and within five days the U.S. recognized Cuba's new government, which lasted eleven months. Batista then became the strongman behind a succession of puppet presidents until he was elected president in 1940.[26] After Mendieta, succeeding governments were led by José Agripino Barnet (five months) and Miguel Mariano Gómez (seven months) before Federico Laredo Brú ruled from December 1936 to October 1940.[27]

    Constitutional Presidency (1940–1944)

    Fulgencio Batista portrait, 1940

    Batista defeated Grau in

    labor unions, with which the Communists had close ties, as well as the pro-Allied stance in World War II.[31] In fact, Communists attacked the anti-Batista opposition, saying Grau and others were "fascists" and "reactionaries."[32] During this term in office, Batista carried out major social reforms[30] and established numerous economic regulations and pro-union policies.[32]

    Cuba entered World War II on the side of the Allies on December 9, 1941, declaring war on Japan two days after the attack on Pearl Harbor. On December 11, the Batista government declared war on Germany and Italy. In December 1942, after a friendly visit to Washington, Batista said Latin America would applaud if the

    Spain, calling the regime "fascist".[33][34]

    Post-presidency

    In 1944, Batista's handpicked successor, Carlos Saladrigas Zayas,[35] was defeated by Grau. In the final months of his presidency, Batista sought to handicap the incoming Grau administration. In a July 17, 1944, dispatch to the U.S. Secretary of State, U.S. Ambassador Spruille Braden wrote:

    It is becoming increasingly apparent that President Batista intends to discomfit the incoming Administration in every way possible, particularly financially. A systematic raid on the Treasury is in full swing with the result that Dr. Grau will probably find empty coffers when he takes office on October 10. It is blatant that President Batista desires that Dr. Grau San Martin should assume obligations which in fairness and equity should be a matter of settlement by the present Administration.[36]

    Shortly after, Batista left Cuba for the United States. "I just felt safer there," he said. He divorced his wife, Elisa, and married Marta Fernández Batista in 1945. Two of their four children were born in the United States.

    For the next eight years, Batista remained in the background, spending time in the Waldorf-Astoria in New York City and a home in Daytona Beach, Florida.[26]

    He continued to participate in Cuban politics and was elected to the Cuban Senate in absentia in 1948. Returning to Cuba, he decided to run for president and received permission from President Grau, whereupon he formed the United Action Party. On taking power he founded the Progressive Action Party, but he never regained his former popular support, though the unions supported him until the end.[37][38]

    Military coup and dictatorship (1952–1959)

    Slum (bohio) dwellings in Havana, Cuba in 1954, just outside Havana baseball stadium. In the background is advertising for a nearby casino.

    In 1952, Batista again ran for president. In a three-way race, Roberto Agramonte of the Orthodox Party led in all the polls, followed by Carlos Hevia of the Authentic Party. Batista's United Action coalition was running a distant third.[39][40]

    On March 10, 1952, three months before the elections, Batista, with army backing,

    Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr.
    said:

    The corruption of the Government, the brutality of the police, the government's indifference to the needs of the people for education, medical care, housing, for social justice and economic justice ... is an open invitation to revolution.[42]

    Economy of Cuba

    Upon his seizure of power, Batista inherited a country that was relatively prosperous for Latin America. According to Batista's government, although a third of Cubans still lived in poverty, Cuba was one of the five most developed countries in the region.[43] In the 1950s, Cuba's gross domestic product (GDP) per capita was roughly equal to that of Italy at the time, although still only a sixth of that of the United States.[44] Moreover, although corruption and inequality were rife under Batista, Cuban industrial workers' wages rose significantly. In 1953, the average Cuban family only had an income of $6.00 a week, 15% to 20% of the labor force was chronically unemployed, and only a third of the homes had running water.[45][44] Despite this, according to the International Labour Organization, the average industrial salary in Cuba became the world's eighth-highest in 1958, and the average agricultural wage was higher than some European nations (although, according to one sample from 1956 to 1957, agricultural workers could only find employment for an average of 123 days per year while farm owners, rural tenants and sharecroppers worked an average of only 135 days per year).[46]

    Relationship with organized crime

    Brothels flourished. A major industry grew up around them; government officials received bribes, policemen collected protection money. Prostitutes could be seen standing in doorways, strolling the streets, or leaning from windows. One report estimated that 11,500 of them worked their trade in Havana. Beyond the outskirts of the capital, beyond the slot machines, was one of the poorest, and most beautiful countries in the Western world.

    — David Detzer, American journalist, after visiting Havana in the 1950s [47]

    Throughout the 1950s, Havana served as "a hedonistic playground for the world's elite", producing sizable gambling, prostitution and drug profits for the

    American mafia, corrupt law-enforcement officials, and their politically elected cronies.[48] In the assessment of the Cuban-American historian Louis Perez, "Havana was then what Las Vegas has become."[49] Relatedly, it is estimated that by the end of the 1950s the city of Havana had 270 brothels.[50] In addition, drugs, be it marijuana or cocaine, were so plentiful at the time that one American magazine in 1950 proclaimed "Narcotics are hardly more difficult to obtain in Cuba than a shot of rum. And only slightly more expensive."[48] As a result, the playwright Arthur Miller described Batista's Cuba in The Nation as "hopelessly corrupt, a Mafia playground, (and) a bordello for Americans and other foreigners."[51]

    In a bid to profit from such an environment, Batista established lasting relationships with

    Las Vegas".[52] Batista and Lansky formed a friendship and business relationship that flourished for a decade. During a stay at the Waldorf-Astoria in New York in the late 1940s, it was mutually agreed that, in return for kickbacks, Batista would give Lansky and the Mafia control of Havana's racetracks and casinos.[53] After World War II, Luciano was paroled from prison on the condition that he permanently return to Sicily. Luciano secretly moved to Cuba, where he worked to resume control over American Mafia operations. Luciano also ran a number of casinos in Cuba with the sanction of Batista, though the American government eventually succeeded in pressuring the Batista government to deport him.[54]

    Batista encouraged large-scale gambling in Havana. In 1955, he announced that Cuba would grant a gaming license to anyone who invested US$1 million in a hotel or $200,000 in a new nightclub—and that the government would provide matching public funds for construction, a 10-year tax exemption, and waive duties on imported equipment and furnishings for new hotels. Each casino would pay the government $250,000 for the license, plus a percentage of the profits. The policy omitted background checks, as required for casino operations in the United States, which opened the door for casino investors with illegally obtained funds. Cuban contractors with the right connections made windfalls by importing, duty-free, more materials than needed for new hotels and selling the surplus to others. It was rumored that, besides the $250,000 to obtain a license, an additional "under the table" fee was sometimes required.[55]

    Lansky became a prominent figure in Cuba's gambling operations,[26] and exerted influence over Batista's casino policies. The Mafia's Havana Conference was held on December 22, 1946, at the Hotel Nacional de Cuba; this was the first full-scale meeting of American underworld leaders since the Chicago meeting in 1932. Lansky set about cleaning up the games at the Montmartre Club, which soon became the "place to be" in Havana. He also wanted to open a casino in the Hotel Nacional, the most elegant hotel in Havana. Batista endorsed Lansky's idea over the objections of American expatriates such as Ernest Hemingway, and the renovated casino wing opened for business in 1955 with a show by Eartha Kitt. The casino was an immediate success.[56]

    As the new hotels, nightclubs, and casinos opened, Batista collected his share of the profits. Nightly, the "bagman" for his wife collected 10% of the profits at

    Santo Trafficante's casinos, the Sans Souci cabaret, and the casinos in the hotels Sevilla-Biltmore, Commodoro, Deauville, and Capri (partly owned by the actor George Raft). His take from the Lansky casinos—his prized Habana Riviera, the Hotel Nacional, the Montmartre Club, and others—was said to be 30%.[57] Lansky was said to have personally contributed millions of dollars per year to Batista's Swiss bank accounts.[58]

    Support of U.S. business and government

    Golden Telephone is now in Havana's Museum of the Revolution
    as a symbol of Batista era corruption.

    At the beginning of 1959 United States companies owned about 40 percent of the Cuban sugar lands—almost all the cattle ranches—90 percent of the mines and mineral concessions—80 percent of the utilities—practically all the oil industry—and supplied two-thirds of Cuba's imports.

    — John F. Kennedy[45]

    In a manner that antagonized the Cuban people, the U.S. government used its influence to advance the interests of and increase the profits of the private American companies, which "dominated the island's economy".

    Golden Telephone, as an "expression of gratitude" for the "excessive telephone rate increase", at least according to Senator John F. Kennedy, that Batista granted at the urging of the U.S. government.[45][non-primary source needed
    ]

    Earl E.T. Smith, former U.S. Ambassador to Cuba, testified to the U.S. Senate in 1960 that, "Until Castro, the U.S. was so overwhelmingly influential in Cuba that the American ambassador was the second most important man, sometimes even more important than the Cuban president."[59] In addition, nearly "all aid" from the U.S. to Batista's government was in the "form of weapons assistance", which "merely strengthened the Batista dictatorship" and "completely failed to advance the economic welfare of the Cuban people".[45][non-primary source needed] Such actions later "enabled Castro and the Communists to encourage the growing belief that America was indifferent to Cuban aspirations for a decent life."[45][non-primary source needed
    ]

    According to historian and author James S. Olson, the U.S. government essentially became a "co-conspirator" in the arrangement because of Batista's strong opposition to communism, which, in the rhetoric of the Cold War, seemed to maintain business stability and a pro-U.S. posture on the island.[9] Thus, in the view of Olson, "The U.S. government had no difficulty in dealing with him, even if he was a hopeless despot."[9] On October 6, 1960, Senator John F. Kennedy, in the midst of his campaign for the U.S. presidency, decried Batista's relationship with the U.S. government and criticized the Eisenhower administration for supporting him.

    Batista, Fidel Castro and the Cuban Revolution

    Batista with U.S. Army Chief of staff Malin Craig in Washington, D.C., riding in an Armistice Day parade, 1938

    I believe that there is no country in the world including any and all the countries under colonial domination, where economic colonization, humiliation and exploitation were worse than in Cuba, in part owing to my country's policies during the Batista regime. I approved the proclamation which Fidel Castro made in the Sierra Maestra, when he justifiably called for justice and especially yearned to rid Cuba of corruption. I will even go further: to some extent it is as though Batista was the incarnation of a number of sins on the part of the United States. Now we shall have to pay for those sins. In the matter of the Batista regime, I am in agreement with the first Cuban revolutionaries. That is perfectly clear.

    — U.S. President John F. Kennedy, to Jean Daniel, October 24, 1963.[60]

    On July 26, 1953, just over a year after Batista's second coup, a small group of revolutionaries attacked the

    Moncada Barracks in Santiago. Government forces easily defeated the assault and jailed its leaders, while many others fled the country. The primary leader of the attack, Fidel Castro, was a young attorney who had run for parliament in the canceled 1952 elections. Although Castro was never officially nominated, he felt that Batista's coup had sidetracked what would have been a promising political career for him.[61] In the wake of the Moncada assault, Batista suspended constitutional guarantees and increasingly relied on police tactics in an attempt to "frighten the population through open displays of brutality."[26]

    Batista held an

    Ramón Grau San Martín, leading the electoralist factions of the Cuban Revolutionary Party, participated through the political campaign but withdrew from the campaign days before election day, charging that his supporters had been terrorized.[65][page needed] Thus Batista was elected president with the support of 45.6% of registered voters. Despite the boycott, Grau received the support of 6.8% of those who voted. The remaining voters abstained.[66][page needed
    ]

    By late 1955, student riots and anti-Batista demonstrations had become frequent, and unemployment became a problem as graduates entering the workforce could not find jobs.

    Directorio Revolucionario (DR) who led the attack were killed in the response by the military and police. Castro quickly condemned the attack, since July 26 Movement had not participated in it.[70][page needed
    ]

    Batista in March 1957, standing next to a map of the Sierra Maestra mountains where Fidel Castro's rebels were based

    In April 1956, Batista called popular military leader Col. Ramón Barquín back to Cuba from his post as military attaché to the United States. Believing Barquín would support his rule, Batista promoted him to General.[71] However, Barquín's Conspiración de los Puros (Conspiracy of the Pure) was already underway and had already progressed too far. On April 6, 1956, Barquín led hundreds of career officers in a coup attempt, but was frustrated by Lieutenant Ríos Morejón, who betrayed the plan. Barquín was sentenced to solitary confinement for eight years on the Isle of Pines, while some officers were sentenced to death for treason.[71] Many others were allowed to remain in the military without reprimand.[72][page needed]

    The purge of the officer corps contributed to the inability of the Cuban army to successfully combat Castro and his guerrillas.[71][73] Batista's police responded to increasing popular unrest by torturing and killing young men in the cities. However, his army was ineffective against the rebels based in the Sierra Maestra and Escambray Mountains.[26] Another possible explanation for the failure to crush the rebellion was offered by author Carlos Alberto Montaner: "Batista does not finish Fidel out of greed ... His is a government of thieves. To have this small guerrilla band in the mountains is to his advantage, so that he can order special defense expenditures that they can steal."[26] Batista's rule became increasingly unpopular among the population, and the Soviet Union began to secretly support Castro.[74] Some of Batista's generals also criticized him in later years, saying that Batista's excessive interference in his generals' military plans to defeat the rebels hampered Army morale and rendered all operations ineffective.[72]

    It is clear that counter-terror became the strategy of the Batista government. It has been estimated that perhaps as many as 20,000 civilians were killed.[75]

    Batista's soldiers executing a rebel by firing squad in 1956

    In an effort to gather information about Castro's army, Batista's secret police pulled in people for questioning. Many innocent people were tortured by Batista's police, while suspects, including youth, were publicly executed as a warning to others who were considering joining the insurgency. Additionally, "Hundreds of mangled bodies were left hanging from lamp posts or dumped in the streets in a grotesque variation of the Spanish colonial practice of public executions."[69] The brutal behavior backfired and increased support for the guerrillas. In 1958, 45 organizations signed an open letter supporting July 26 Movement, among them national bodies representing lawyers, architects, dentists, accountants, and social workers.

    The United States supplied Batista with planes, ships, tanks and the latest technology, such as napalm, which he used against the insurgency. However, in March 1958, the U.S. announced it would stop selling arms to the Cuban government.[76] Soon after, the U.S. imposed an arms embargo, further weakening the government's position,[77] although landowners and others who benefited from the government continued to support Batista.[31]

    Elections were scheduled for June 1958, as required by the Constitution, but were delayed until November 1958, when Castro and the revolutionaries called for a general strike and placed several bombs in civilian areas of the country. Three main candidates ran in the elections:

    1954 elections
    , withdrew his candidacy within a few hours of the election day. Batista declared Rivero Agüero the winner.

    The U.S. rejected the results of the elections and announced plans to withhold diplomatic recognition of the Rivero Agüero government.

    Earl Smith informed Agüero that the United States would not give aid and support to his government.[77] Smith also informed Batista that the U.S. believed him incapable of maintaining effective control and that he should retire.[77]

    On December 31, 1958, at a New Year's Eve party, Batista told his cabinet and top officials that he was leaving the country and resigned. After seven years, Batista knew his presidency was over, and he fled the island in the early morning.

    Ciudad Trujillo in the Dominican Republic. A second plane flew out of Havana later in the night, carrying ministers, officers and the Governor of Havana. Batista took along a personal fortune of more than $300 million that he had amassed through graft and payoffs.[81] Critics accused Batista and his supporters of taking as much as $700 million in fine art and cash with them as they fled into exile.[82][83]

    As news of the fall of Batista's government spread through Havana, The New York Times described jubilant crowds pouring into the streets and automobile horns honking. The black and red flag of the July 26 Movement waved on cars and buildings. The atmosphere was chaotic. On January 8, 1959, Castro and his army rolled victoriously into Havana.[84] Already denied entry to the United States, Batista sought asylum in Mexico, which also refused him. Portugal's leader António Salazar allowed him to settle there on the condition that he completely abstain from politics.[85]

    Historians and primary documents estimate between hundreds and 20,000 Cubans were killed under the Batista regime.[86][13][87][88][89][90][91]

    However, the 20,000 number is disputed by several historians, which considered it as ‘propaganda’. According to French historian Jeannine Verdès-Leroux:

    [...] Intellectuals and journalists have endlessly hammered home the falsified figure of 20,000 deaths. Castro only spoke, in his report to the 1st Congress of the Cuban Communist Party, of an “incalculable” number of victims. Specialists agree to conclude that the figure of 2,000 deaths is a high maximum.[92]

    Personal life

    Batista and his wife Marta Fernández Miranda at breakfast in the Presidential Palace in April 1958

    Marriages and children

    Batista married

    Elisa Godínez y Gómez (1900–1993) on July 10, 1926. They had three children: Mirta Caridad (1927–2010), Elisa Aleida (born 1933), and Fulgencio Rubén Batista Godínez (1933–2007).[93] By all accounts, she was devoted to him and their children throughout their marriage, and their daughter remembered them as a "happy, young couple" until their sudden divorce. Much to her surprise, he divorced her in October 1945 against her will in order to marry his longtime mistress Marta Fernandez Miranda
    .

    He married Marta Fernández Miranda (1923–2006) on November 28, 1945, shortly after his divorce became final, and they had five children: Jorge Luis (born 1942), Roberto Francisco (born 1947), Carlos Manuel (1950–1969), Fulgencio José (born 1953) and Marta María Batista Fernández (born 1957).

    After fleeing, Batista had a child born shortly after his death named Mateo C Batista, his mother removed the Batista from his name as to not raise suspicions.

    Extramarital affairs

    Batista was an inveterate philanderer who engaged in numerous extramarital affairs throughout his first marriage. He cheated on his first wife with multiple women, and his children eventually became aware of his relationships.[94][page needed] His first wife, who supported her husband throughout his political career and found his philandering humiliating, never considered divorce and tolerated his multiple affairs.[94][page needed] However, Batista became enamored with the much younger Marta Fernández Miranda, who became his longtime mistress. He filed divorce papers shortly before his first grandchild was born. His first wife and their children were astounded and devastated by the divorce.[95][page needed]

    In 1935, he fathered an illegitimate daughter, Fermina Lázara Batista Estévez, whom he supported financially.[83][96]

    Death

    After he fled to Portugal, Batista lived in Madeira, then later in Estoril. He died of a heart attack on August 6, 1973, at Marbella, Spain.[15]

    Marta Fernández Miranda de Batista, Batista's widow, died on October 2, 2006.[82] Roberto Batista, her son, said that she died at her home in West Palm Beach, Florida, US.[83] She had suffered from Alzheimer's disease.[83]

    Books written by Batista

    • Estoy con el Pueblo (I am With the People), Havana, 1939
    • Respuesta, Manuel León Sánchez S.C.L., Mexico City, 1960
    • Piedras y leyes (Stones and Laws), Mexico City, 1961
    • Cuba Betrayed, Vantage Press, New York, 1961
    • To Rule is to Foresee, 1962
    • The Growth and Decline of the Cuban Republic, Devin-Adair Company, New York, 1964

    References

    Notes

    1. Spanish name, the first or paternal surname
      is Batista and the second or maternal family name is Zaldívar.
    2. ^ /fʊlˈhɛnsioʊ bəˈtiːstə/ ⓘ fuul-HEN-see-oh bə-TEE-stə,[1] Latin American Spanish: [fulˈxensjo βaˈtista j salˈdiβaɾ]

    Citations

    1. ^ "Batista". Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary.
    2. ^ a b Cino, Luis (March 13, 2006). "Rubén el terrible" [Rubén the terrible]. Cubanet. Coral Gables, FL: CubaNet News, Inc. Archived from the original on November 30, 2007. Retrieved September 30, 2017. En las actas del juzgado de Banes siguió siendo legalmente Rubén Zaldívar hasta que en 1939, al ser nominado a la candidatura presidencial, se descubrió que la inscripción de nacimiento de Fulgencio Batista no existía. Conseguirla le costó postergar la presentación de su candidatura y quince mil pesos para pagar al juez." – "In the minutes of the courthouse at Banes he remained legally being Rubén Zaldívar until 1939, when, nominated to the presidential candidacy, it was discovered that Fulgencio Batista's birth certificate did not exist. To obtain it cost him the postponing the presentation of his candidacy and fifteen thousand pesos to pay the [local] judge.
    3. ^ "Elections and Events 1935–1951 – The Library". Libraries.ucsd.edu. Archived from the original on January 12, 2014. Retrieved August 18, 2014.
    4. ISBN 978-0-8135-3701-6
      .
    5. ISBN 978-0-8020-9666-1
      . Retrieved July 6, 2013.
    6. ^ Cavendish, Richard (March 2002). "General Batista Returns to Power in Cuba". History Today. Vol. 52, no. 3. London: History Today Ltd. Retrieved September 30, 2017.
    7. ISBN 978-0-8223-4737-8. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help
      )
    8. ^ Fidel: The Untold Story. (2001). Directed by Estela Bravo. First Run Features. (91 min). Viewable clip. "Batista's forces were trained by the United States, which also armed them with tanks, artillery, and aircraft."
    9. ^
      ISBN 0-313-30619-2
      , pp. 67–68.
    10. ^ Fidel: The Untold Story. (2001). Directed by Estela Bravo. First Run Features. (91 min). Viewable clip.
    11. ISBN 0-06-114771-0
      .
    12. ^ CIA (1963). Political Murders in Cuba – Batista Era Compared with Castro Regime
    13. ^ a b Wickham-Crowley, Timothy P. (1990). Exploring Revolution: Essays on Latin American Insurgency and Revolutionary Theory. Armonk and London: M.E. Sharpe. p. 63 "Estimates of hundreds or perhaps about a thousand deaths due to Batista's terror are also supported by comments made by Fidel Castro and other Batista critics during the war itself."
    14. ISBN 2-07-078018-X
      , p. 19.
    15. ^ a b "Batista Dies in Spain at 72". The New York Times. August 7, 1973.
    16. ^ "Mambí Army" Data Base.
    17. ^ Sierra, Jerry A. "Fulgencio Batista, from army sergeant to dictator". www.historyofcuba.com. Archived from the original on January 27, 2022. Retrieved August 27, 2009.
    18. ^ Havana By Brendan Sainsbury [1].
    19. ^ Fidel Castro's Road to Power, Volume 1.
    20. ISBN 0330484877
      .
    21. ^ Batista y Zaldívar, Fulgencio Archived May 23, 2010, at the Wayback Machine by Aimee Estill, Historical Text Archive.
    22. ^ a b "Evolution of a Dictator". Time. June 12, 1944. Archived from the original on December 14, 2008. Retrieved May 3, 2010.
    23. ^ La piel de la memoria by René Dayre Abella.
    24. ISBN 0330484877
      .
    25. ISBN 0330484877
      .
    26. ^ a b c d e f g h American Experience: Fulgencio Batista by PBS.
    27. ^ a b Foreign Relations of the United States: Diplomatic Papers, 1933. The American Republics: Volume V, p. 384. http://images.library.wisc.edu/FRUS/EFacs/1933v05/reference/frus.frus1933v05.i0010.pdf
    28. ^ a b Frank Argote-Freyre. Fulgencio Batista: Volume 1, From Revolutionary to Strongman. Rutgers University Press, New Jersey.
    29. ISBN 978-0-521-43682-3
      .
    30. ^
      ISBN 978-0-674-01612-5
      .
    31. ^ a b Jorge I. Domínguez. Cuba. p. 90.
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    33. ^ "Plain Talk in Spanish", Time, December 28, 1942, Retrieved March 2, 2010
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    35. ^ "See".
    36. University of Wisconsin
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    37. ^ Biography of Fulgencio Batista – Profile Archived February 22, 2009, at the Wayback Machine About.com.
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    39. ISBN 978-0739124437
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    40. ^ "Cuba: Elections and Events 1952-1959". Collections of Distinction: Latin American Elections Statistics. The Library, UC San Diego. Retrieved November 30, 2016.
    41. ^ This date is given in many sources although there is none that seemed to be clearly definitive. The closest is a recommendation from US Secretary of State Dean Acheson to President Truman on March 24 recommending recognition on that date: Acheson, Dean (March 24, 1952). "Continuation of Diplomatic Relations with Cuba". Office of the Historian of the United States Department of State. United States Department of State. Retrieved March 9, 2017.
    42. ISBN 0070797293
      , p. 512.
    43. ^ "The Cuban revolution at 50: Heroic myth and prosaic failure". The Economist. December 30, 2008.
    44. ^ a b Servando Gonzalez. The Secret Fidel Castro.
    45. ^
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      , p. 17.
    48. ^ a b William Morgan: A Rebel "Americano" in Cuba at The Cuban History, May 16, 2012.
    49. ^ a b c Before the Revolution by Natasha Geiling, Smithsonian Magazine, July 31, 2007.
    50. ^ Cuba Before the Revolution by Samuel Farber, Jacobin Magazine, September 6, 2015.
    51. ^ 'A Visit With Castro' by Arthur Miller, The Nation, 2003
    52. ^ Fulgencio Batista Archived May 14, 2013, at the Wayback Machine fun facts by History of Cuba.
    53. ISBN 0-06-114771-0
      , pp. 15, 16, 20
    54. ISBN 0-06-114771-0
      , pp. 46–47.
    55. ISBN 0-06-114771-0
      , p. 132.
    56. ^ Cuban History, Architecture & Culture Archived July 20, 2011, at the Wayback Machine.
    57. ^ Fulgencio Batista: Cuban Dictator, 1901–1973 at U-S History.
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    59. ISBN 1-55546-835-7
      , p. 66.
    60. ^ New Republic, 14 Dec. 1963, Jean Daniel "Unofficial Envoy: An Historic Report from Two Capitals," p. 16
    61. ISBN 978-0-7864-6506-4. Archived from the original
      on January 28, 2013.
    62. ^ Fulgencio Batista y Zaldivar. Respuesta: Primera Edición. México, D.F. Impresa Manuel León Sanchez. 1960.
    63. ^ Manuel Marquez-Sterling. Cuba 1952–1959: The True Story of Castro's Rise to Power. Wintergreen, Virginia. Kleiopatria Digital Press. 2009.
    64. ISBN 978-0-19-510120-1
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    65. ^ Antonio Lancis Sanchez. El proceso electoral de 1954. Havana, Cuba. Ediciones Lex. 1955.
    66. ^ Mario Riero Hernandez. Cuba Politica. La Habana, Cuba. 1955.
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    68. ISBN 978-0-06-014259-9
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    69. ^
      ISBN 0-8369-2521-1
      , p. 77.
    70. ^ Historia de Cuba: Desde Colon hasta Castro. Carlos Márquez Sterling. Miami, Florida. 1963.
    71. ^ a b c Sullivan, Patricia (March 6, 2008). "Ramón M. Barquín, 93; Led Failed '56 Coup in Cuba". The Washington Post. Retrieved March 31, 2008.
    72. ^ a b Francisco Tabernilla Palmero and Gabriel E. Taborda. Palabras esperadas: Memorias de Francisco H. Tabernilla Palmero. Ediciones Universales. Miami, Florida. 2009.
    73. ^ DePalma, Anthony (March 6, 2008). "Ramón Barquín, Cuban Colonel, Dies at 93". The New York Times. Retrieved March 31, 2008.
    74. ^ Timothy P. Wickham-Crowley. Guerrillas and revolution in Latin America. p. 189.
    75. ^ Violence in America: Historical and Comparative Perspectives – A Report to the National Commission on the Causes and Prevention of Violence Volume 2, U.S. Government Printing Office, 1969, p. 582.
    76. ISBN 1-55546-835-7
      , p. 45.
    77. ^ a b c d Louis A. Pérez. Cuba and the United States. pp. 236–237.
    78. ^ a b Carlos Márquez Sterling. Memorias de un estadista. Ediciones Universales. Miami, Florida. 2005.
    79. ^ Audio: Recalling Castro's Ascension – And CIA Reaction by Tom Gjelten, NPR Morning Edition, January 1, 2009.
    80. ISBN 0-330-48487-7
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    82. ^
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    83. ^ a b c d "Widow of Cuban strongman Batista dies". October 5, 2006. Retrieved March 25, 2016.
    84. ^ "Castro: The Great Survivor". BBC News. October 2000. Retrieved May 15, 2006.
    85. ^ Horowitz, Irving Louis & Suchlicki, Jaime, Cuban Communism: 1959–2003, New Jersey, Transaction Publishers, 11th ed., 2003, p. 34.
    86. ^ Guerra, Lillian (2012). Visions of Power in Cuba: Revolution, Redemption, and Resistance, 1959–1971. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. p. 42 "The likely total was probably closer to three to four thousand."
    87. ISBN 0-8369-2521-1
      , p. 77. "All told, Batista's second dictatorship cost the Cuban people some 20,000 dead"
    88. ISBN 1-869847-43-1
      , p. 209. "Batista engineered yet another coup, establishing a dictatorial regime, which was responsible for the death of 20,000 Cubans."
    89. ISBN 0-8476-7450-9
      , p. 344. "Under Batista at least 20,000 people were put to death."
    90. ^ Fidel: The Untold Story. (2001). Directed by Estela Bravo. First Run Features. (91 min). Viewable clip. "An estimated 20,000 people were murdered by government forces during the Batista dictatorship."
    91. ^ Conflict, Order, and Peace in the Americas, by the Lyndon B. Johnson School of Public Affairs, 1978, p. 121. "The US-supported Batista regime killed 20,000 Cubans".
    92. ISBN 2-07-078018-X
      , p. 19.
    93. ^ "Son of former Cuban leader dies"[permanent dead link]. Pensacola News Journal. November 9, 2007. [dead link]
    94. ^
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    95. ISBN 978-0813541006
      . tolerated it.
    96. ^ "Batista Will and $3,270,000 Reported Found". The News Tribune. Fort Pierce, FL. Associated Press. January 25, 1959. p. 11.

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