Fundamentalism
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Fundamentalism is a phenomena that is often perceived differently according to where one stands on a matter of religions. For the orthodox it may be seen as a relatively basic framework that does not encompass or fully signify the depth of relationships within a religion. For the unorthodox it may be initially noted by a tendency among certain groups and individuals that is characterized by the application of a strict adherence to 'fundamental'
The term "fundamentalism" is generally regarded by scholars of religion as referring to a largely modern religious phenomenon which, while itself a reinterpretation of religion as defined by the parameters of
Religious fundamentalism
Buddhism
Buddhist fundamentalism has targeted other religious and ethnic groups, as in
Buddhist fundamentalism also features in Sri Lanka. Buddhist-dominated Sri Lanka has seen recent tensions between Muslim minorities and the Buddhist majority, especially during the 2014 anti-Muslim riots in Sri Lanka[10] and in the course of the 2018 anti-Muslim riots in Sri Lanka,[11] allegedly instigated by hardline groups such as the Bodu Bala Sena.[citation needed]
Historic and contemporary examples of Buddhist fundamentalism occur in each of the three main branches of
In Japan, a prominent example has been the practice among some members of the Mahayana
Christianity
The concept of "fundamentalism" has roots in the Niagara Bible Conferences which were held annually between 1878 and 1897. During those conferences, the tenets widely considered to be fundamental Christian belief were identified.
"Fundamentalism" was prefigured by The Fundamentals: A Testimony To The Truth, a collection of twelve pamphlets published between 1910 and 1915 by brothers Milton and Lyman Stewart. It is widely considered to be the foundation of modern Christian fundamentalism.
In 1910, the General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church identified what became known as the five fundamentals:[17]
- Biblical inspiration and the infallibility of scripture as a result of this
- Virgin birth of Jesus
- Belief that Christ's death was the atonementfor sin
- Bodily resurrection of Jesus
- Historical reality of the miracles of Jesus
In 1920, the word "fundamentalist" was first used in print by Curtis Lee Laws, editor of The Watchman Examiner, a Baptist newspaper.[18] Laws proposed that those Christians who were fighting for the fundamentals of the faith should be called "fundamentalists".[19]
Theological conservatives who rallied around the five fundamentals came to be known as "fundamentalists". They rejected the existence of commonalities with theologically related religious traditions, such as the grouping of Christianity, Islam, and Judaism into one Abrahamic family of religions.[2] By contrast, while Evangelical groups (such as the Billy Graham Evangelistic Association) typically agree with the "fundamentals" as they are expressed in The Fundamentals, they are often willing to participate in events with religious groups that do not hold to the "essential" doctrines.[20]
Hinduism
The existence of fundamentalism in
Some would argue that, because of the wide range of traditions and ideas covered by the term Hinduism, a lack of theological 'fundamentals' means that a dogmatic 'religious fundamentalism' per se is hard to find.[25] Others point to the recent rise of Hindu nationalism in India as evidence to the contrary. The religion "defies our desire to define and categorize it." In India, the term “dharma” is preferred, which is broader than the Western term “religion.”[26]
Hence, certain scholars argue that Hinduism lacks dogma and thus a specific notion of "fundamentalism," while other scholars identify several politically active Hindu movements as part of a "Hindu fundamentalist family."[27][28]
Islam
Fundamentalism within Islam goes back to the
The Shia and Sunni religious conflicts since the 7th century created an opening for radical ideologues, such as
The
Judaism
Politics
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Conservatism |
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In modern politics, fundamentalism has been associated with right-wing conservative ideology, especially social conservatism. Social conservatives often support policies in line with religious fundamentalism, such as support for school prayer and opposition to LGBT rights and abortion.[44] Conversely, secularism has been associated with left-wing liberal ideology, as it takes the opposite stance to said policies.[6]
Political usage of the term "fundamentalism" has been criticized. It has been used by political groups to berate opponents, using the term flexibly depending on their political interests. According to Judith Nagata, a professor of Asia Research Institute in the National University of Singapore, "The Afghan mujahiddin, locked in combat with the Soviet enemy in the 1980s, could be praised as 'freedom fighters' by their American backers at the time, while the present Taliban, viewed, among other things, as protectors of American enemy Osama bin Laden, are unequivocally 'fundamentalist'."[45]
"Fundamentalist" has been used pejoratively to refer to philosophies perceived as literal-minded or carrying a pretense of being the sole source of objective truth, regardless of whether it is usually called a religion. For instance, the Archbishop of Wales has criticized "atheistic fundamentalism" broadly[46][47][48] and said "Any kind of fundamentalism, be it Biblical, atheistic or Islamic, is dangerous".[49] He also said, "the new fundamentalism of our age ... leads to the language of expulsion and exclusivity, of extremism and polarisation, and the claim that, because God is on our side, he is not on yours."[50] He claimed it led to situations such as councils calling Christmas "Winterval", schools refusing to put on nativity plays and crosses being removed from chapels. Others have countered that some of these attacks on Christmas are urban legends, not all schools do nativity plays because they choose to perform other traditional plays like A Christmas Carol or "The Snow Queen" and, because of rising tensions between various religions, opening up public spaces to alternate displays rather than the Nativity scene is an attempt to keep government religion-neutral.[51]
In The New Inquisition, Robert Anton Wilson lampoons the members of skeptical organizations such as the Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal as fundamentalist materialists, alleging that they dogmatically dismiss any evidence that conflicts with materialism as hallucination or fraud.[52]
In France, during a protestation march against the imposition of restrictions on the wearing of headscarves in state-run schools, a banner labeled the ban as "secular fundamentalism".[53][54] In the United States, private or cultural intolerance of women wearing the hijab (Islamic headcovering) and political activism by Muslims also has been labeled "secular fundamentalism".[55]
The term "fundamentalism" is sometimes applied to signify a counter-cultural fidelity to a principle or set of principles, as in the pejorative term "
Criticism
A criticism by Elliot N. Dorff:
In order to carry out the fundamentalist program in practice, one would need a perfect understanding of the ancient language of the original text, if indeed the true text can be discerned from among variants. Furthermore, human beings are the ones who transmit this understanding between generations. Even if one wanted to follow the literal word of God, the need for people first to understand that word necessitates human interpretation. Through that process human fallibility is inextricably mixed into the very meaning of the divine word. As a result, it is impossible to follow the indisputable word of God; one can only achieve a human understanding of God's will.[57]
Howard Thurman was interviewed in the late 1970s for a BBC feature on religion. He told the interviewer:
I say that creeds, dogmas, and theologies are inventions of the mind. It is the nature of the mind to make sense out of experience, to reduce the conglomerates of experience to units of comprehension which we call principles, or ideologies, or concepts. Religious experience is dynamic, fluid, effervescent, yeasty. But the mind can't handle these so it has to imprison religious experience in some way, get it bottled up. Then, when the experience quiets down, the mind draws a bead on it and extracts concepts, notions, dogmas, so that religious experience can make sense to the mind. Meanwhile, religious experience goes on experiencing, so that by the time I get my dogma stated so that I can think about it, the religious experience becomes an object of thought.[58]
Influential criticisms of fundamentalism include James Barr's books on Christian fundamentalism and Bassam Tibi's analysis of Islamic fundamentalism.[citation needed][59]
A study at the University of Edinburgh found that of its six measured dimensions of religiosity, "lower intelligence is most associated with higher levels of fundamentalism."[60]
Use as a label
The Associated Press' AP Stylebook recommends that the term fundamentalist not be used for any group that does not apply the term to itself. Many scholars have adopted a similar position.[61] Other scholars, however, use the term in the broader descriptive sense to refer to various groups in various religious traditions including those groups that would object to being classified as fundamentalists, such as in the Fundamentalism Project.[62]
See also
- Authoritarianism
- Biblical literalism
- Christian identity
- Christian Reconstructionism
- Christian nationalism
- Creation science
- Cult
- Dogmatism
- Dominionism
- Evangelical atheism
- Evangelicalism
- Extremism
- Formalism (philosophy)
- Fundamentalism (sculpture)
- Historical-grammatical method
- Independent Fundamental Baptist
- Indoctrination
- Integrism
- Islamic extremism
- Islamic State
- Islamism
- Legalism (theology)
- Militant atheism
- Moral absolutism
- Mormon fundamentalism
- Pentecostalism
- Political radicalism
- Reactionary
- Religious discrimination
- Religious fanaticism
- Religious intolerance
- Religious nationalism
- Religious persecution
- Religious segregation
- Religious violence
- Restorationism
- Ritualism in the Church of England
- Sect
- Sectarianism
- True Orthodox church
References
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- .
... the fundamentalism and quest relationships with prejudice are especially meaningful in light of an association with right‐wing authoritarianism. ... In the end, it would seem that it is not religion per se, but rather the ways in which individuals hold their religious beliefs, which are associated with prejudice.
- .
Once considered exclusively a matter of religion, theology, or scriptural correctness, use of the term fundamentalism has recently undergone metaphorical expansion into other domains [...].
- ^ JSTOR 40203988.
- OCLC 182663241.
- OCLC 230674627. Archived from the original(PDF) on September 10, 2008. Retrieved July 27, 2008.
Widely used as a pejorative term to designate one's fanatical opponents – usually religious and/or political – rather than oneself, fundamentalism began in Christian Protestant circles in the eC20. Originally restricted to debates within evangelical ('gospel-based') Protestantism, it is now employed to refer to any person or group that is characterized as unbending, rigorous, intolerant, and militant. The term has two usages, the prior one a positive self-description, which then developed into the later derogatory usage that is now widespread.
- ^ KYAW ZWA MOE (March 30, 2013). "Root Out the Source of Meikhtila Unrest". Archived from the original on August 27, 2013. Retrieved November 4, 2013.
- ^ Athas, Iqbal; Hume, Tim (June 24, 2014). "Fear, shock among Sri Lankan Muslims in aftermath of Buddhist mob violence". CNN. Retrieved January 23, 2020.
- ^ "Sri Lanka struggles to halt days of Buddhist riots". BBC News. March 7, 2018. Retrieved January 23, 2020.
- ^ Schaik 2011, p. 165-169.
- ^ a b Kay 2004, p. 47.
- ^ As of 2023[update], Marsden's work has been cited over 3600 times, according to "Google Scholar". scholar.google.com. Retrieved January 2, 2023.
- ^ Buescher, John. "A History of Fundamentalism". teachinghistory.org. Archived from the original on July 14, 2010. Retrieved January 2, 2023.
- ^ Mark A. Noll, A History of Christianity in the United States and Canada (1992) pp 376-86
- ^ George M. Marsden, "Fundamentalism and American Culture", (1980) p. 117
- ^ "fundamentalist (adj.)". Etymonline. Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved January 29, 2021.
- ^ Curtis Lee Laws, "Convention Side Lights," The Watchman-Examiner, 8, no. 27 (1 July 1920), p 834.
- ^ Carpenter, Revive us Again (1997) p 200
- ^ Lipner 2009, p. 8 quote: "... one need not be religious in the minimal sense described to be accepted as a Hindu by Hindus, or describe oneself perfectly validly as Hindu. One may be polytheistic or monotheistic, monistic or pantheistic,henotheistic, panentheistic, pandeistic, even an agnostic, humanist or atheist, and still be considered a Hindu."
- OCLC 436849045.
- ^ MK Gandhi, The Essence of Hinduism Archived 24 July 2015 at the Wayback Machine, Editor: VB Kher, Navajivan Publishing, see page 3; According to Gandhi, "a man may not believe in God and still call himself a Hindu."
- ^ Doniger 2014, p. 3.
- ^ Hinduism not a religion, there's no book, no papacy: Sadhguru, retrieved December 4, 2021
- ^ Sharma 2003, pp. 12–13.
- ^ "On the Difference Between Hinduism and Hindutva". Association for Asian Studies. Retrieved December 4, 2021.
- ISBN 9781139504294.
- ^ ISSN 1874-6691.
- ^ "Another battle with Islam's 'true believers'". The Globe and Mail.
- ^ Mohamad Jebara More Mohamad Jebara (February 6, 2015). "Imam Mohamad Jebara: Fruits of the tree of extremism". Ottawa Citizen.
- ^ Dr. Usama Hasan (2012). "The Balance of in challenging extremism" (PDF). Quilliam Foundation. Archived from the original (PDF) on August 2, 2014. Retrieved 2015-11-17.
- S2CID 154146522.
- ^ Lawrence Davidson, Islamic Fundamentalism (Greenwood, 2003)
- al Qaeda, a group that, according to the FBI, and I am quoting, is the 'number one terrorist threat to the U.S. today'.
- ISBN 0195169913.
- ^ Armstrong, Karen (November 27, 2014). "Wahhabism to ISIS: how Saudi Arabia exported the main source of global terrorism". New Statesman. London. Archived from the original on November 27, 2014. Retrieved June 28, 2021.
- from the original on August 28, 2014. Retrieved June 28, 2021.
- from the original on April 8, 2020. Retrieved June 28, 2021.
- ^ Lindijer, Koert (August 24, 2013). "How Islam from the north spreads once more into the Sahel". The Africanists. Retrieved November 24, 2014.
Hundreds of years later, Islam again comes to the Sahel, this time with an unstoppable mission mentality and the way paved by money from Saudi Arabia, Qatar, and Pakistan. Foreigners, and also Malians who received scholarships to study in Saudi Arabia, introduce this strict form of Islam, and condemn the sufi's [sic].
[verification needed] - ^ "Google News Search: Chart shows spikes in '79 (Iran hostage crisis), after 9/11 and in '92 and '93 (Algerian elections, PLO)". Retrieved December 9, 2008.[original research?]
- ^ "fundamentalism - religious movement". britannica.com. Retrieved October 22, 2017.
- ISSN 0015-7228. Archived from the originalon October 21, 2009. Retrieved November 4, 2013.
- ISBN 978-0-553-06745-3.
- ^ Nagata, Judith. 2001. Toward an Anthropology of "Fundamentalism." Toronto: Blackwell Publishing, p.9.
- ISBN 978-0-281-05927-0
- ^ "Yr Eglwys yng Nghymru | The Church in Wales". Archived from the original on March 16, 2008.
- ^ "'Atheistic fundamentalism' fears". BBC News. December 22, 2007. Retrieved May 3, 2010.
- ^ "Archbishop of Wales fears the rise of "Atheistic Fundamentalism"". Archived from the original on December 27, 2007. Retrieved November 4, 2013.
- ^ "Atheistic fundamentalism" fears". BBC News. December 22, 2007. Retrieved November 4, 2013.
- ^ Toynbee, Polly (December 21, 2007). "Sorry to disappoint, but it's nonsense to suggest we want to ban Christmas". The Guardian. London. Retrieved May 3, 2010.
- ISBN 1-56184-002-5
- ^ "Secular fundamentalism", International Herald Tribune, December 19, 2003
- ^ "Headscarf ban sparks new protests". BBC News. January 17, 2004. Retrieved January 2, 2023.
- ^ Ahmad, Ayesha (April 22, 2002). "Muslim Activists Reject Secular Fundamentalism". www.islamawareness.net. Retrieved January 2, 2023.Ahmad, Imad-ad-Dean. "Minaret of Feedom 5th Annual Dinner Edited Transcript" (PDF). Minaret of Feedom. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 15, 2003.
- ^ Hindery, Roderick (2008). "Comparative Ethics, Ideologies, and Critical Thought" Archived January 28, 2012, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Dorff, Elliot N. and Rosett, Arthur, A Living Tree; The Roots and Growth of Jewish Law, SUNY Press, 1988.
- ^ "An Interview With Howard Thurman and Ronald Eyre". Theology Today. The Long Search. Vol. 38, no. 2. BBC. July 1981. Archived from the original on September 6, 2002 – via Princeton Theological Seminary.
- ISBN 978-0520236905.
- Timothy C. Bates (September 3, 2011). "The relationship between intelligence and multiple domains of religious belief: Evidence from a large adult US sample" (PDF). Archived(PDF) from the original on April 21, 2013.
- ^ "Can anyone define 'fundamentalist'?", Terry Mattingly, Ventura County Star, May 12, 2011. Retrieved August 6, 2011.
- ^ See, for example, Marty, M. and Appleby, R.S. eds. (1993). Fundamentalisms and the State: Remaking Polities, Economies, and Militance. John H. Garvey, Timur Kuran, and David C. Rapoport, associate editors, Vol 3, The Fundamentalism Project. University of Chicago Press.
- ^ Tex Sample. Public Lecture, Faith and Reason Conference, San Antonio, TX. 2006.
Sources
- ISBN 0-226-01497-5
- Armstrong, Karen (2001). ISBN 0-345-39169-1
- Brasher, Brenda E. (2001). The Encyclopedia of Fundamentalism. New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-92244-5
- Caplan, Lionel. (1987). "Studies in Religious Fundamentalism". London: The MacMillan Press Ltd.
- Dorff, Elliot N. and Rosett, Arthur, A Living Tree; The Roots and Growth of Jewish Law, SUNY Press, 1988.
- Kay, David N. (2004). Tibetan and Zen Buddhism in Britain: Transplantation, Development and Adaptation. RoutledgeCurzon. ISBN 978-0-415-29765-3.
- Keating, Karl (1988). Catholicism and Fundamentalism. San Francisco: Ignatius. ISBN 0-89870-177-5
- Gorenberg, Gershom. (2000). The End of Days: Fundamentalism and the Struggle for the Temple Mount. New York: The Free Press.
- Hindery, Roderick. 2001. Indoctrination and Self-deception or Free and Critical Thought? Mellen Press: aspects of fundamentalism, pp. 69–74.
- Lawrence, Bruce B. Defenders of God: The Fundamentalist Revolt against the Modern Age. San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1989.
- Marsden; George M. (1980). Fundamentalism and American Culture: The Shaping of Twentieth Century Evangelicalism, 1870-1925 Oxford University Press.
- ISBN 0-226-50878-1.
- ISBN 0-226-50880-3.
- ISBN 0-226-50883-8.
- ISBN 0-226-50885-4.
- ISBN 0-226-50887-0.
- Noll, Mark A. (1992). A History of Christianity in the United States and Canada. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans.
- Ruthven, Malise (2005). "Fundamentalism: The Search for Meaning". Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-280606-8
- Schaik, Sam van (June 28, 2011). Tibet: A History. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-15404-7.
- Torrey, R.A. (ed.). (1909). The Fundamentals. Los Angeles: The Bible Institute of Los Angeles (B.I.O.L.A. now ISBN 0-8010-1264-3
- "Religious movements: fundamentalist." In Goldstein, Norm (Ed.) (2003). The Associated Press Stylebook and Briefing on Media Law 2003 (38th ed.), p. 218. New York: The Associated Press. ISBN 0-917360-22-2.
External links
- The Sword of the Lord: The Roots of Fundamentalism in an American Family, book by Andrew Himes
- Can Anyone Define Fundamentalist? Article by Scripps Howard News Service
- Fundamentalism on In Our Time at the BBC
- Richard Dawkins' The God Delusion and Atheist Fundamentalism by Simon Watson, published in Anthropoetics XV,2 Spring 2010
- Q & A on Islamic Fundamentalism
- www.blessedquietness.com a conservative Christian website, maintained by Steve van Natten
- Women Against Fundamentalism (UK)
- Yahya Abdul Rahman's Take On Fundamentalists And Fundamentalism
- Roots of Fundamentalism Traced to 16th Century Bible Translations, Harvard University, November 7, 2007.
- The Fundamentalist Distortion of the Islamic Message by Syed Manzar Abbas Saidi, published in Athena Intelligence Journal
- Admiel Kosman, Between Orthodox Judaism and nihilism: Reflections on the recently published writings of the late Rabbi Shimon Gershon Rosenberg, Haaretz, Aug.17, 2012.