General Motors EV1
General Motors EV1 | |
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lead–acid batteries |
The "General Motors EV1", often simplified to "GM EV1",[2] is a battery electric car produced by the American automobile manufacturer General Motors. It was produced from 1996 until its demise in 1999, but the EV1 program ended four years later.
A subcompact car, the General Motors EV1 marked the introduction of mass produced and purpose-built battery electric vehicles.[3][4] The conception of the EV1 dates back to 1990 when General Motors introduced the battery electric "Impact" prototype, upon which the design of the production EV1 was largely inspired. The California Air Resources Board (CARB) enacted a mandate in 1990, stating that the seven leading automakers marketing vehicles in the United States must produce and sell zero-emissions vehicles (ZEV) to maintain access to the California market.
Since its demise, the EV1's cancellation has remained a subject of dispute and controversy. Electric car enthusiasts, environmental interest groups, and former EV1 lessees have accused the company of self-
History
In contrast to numerous electric vehicles of its time, the EV1 was a purpose-built electric vehicle, not a conversion of another car.[5][6] This factor contributed to its significant development of US$350 million, as well as its high production costs.[7][8] Kenneth Baker, a General Motors engineer, served as the lead engineer for the EV1 program, having previously served as such for the unsuccessful Chevrolet Electrovette program in the 1970s.[9][10][11]
Origins
Throughout the 1970s and 1980s, the automobile industry saw little progress in electric car development; over 80 percent of vehicles produced in the United States featured V8 engines.[8][12] But shifts in federal and state regulations began to influence this. The enactment of the 1990 Clean Air Act Amendment and the 1992 Energy Policy Act, alongside the introduction of new transportation emissions regulations by the California Air Resources Board, contributed to a revived interest in electric vehicles in the United States.[8]
In January 1990 General Motors
Impressed by the feasibility of the Impact and spurred by GM's commitment to produce a minimum of 5,000 units, the California Air Resources Board (CARB) initiated a significant environmental effort in 1990.[24] They mandated that each of the seven largest automakers in the U.S., with GM being the largest among them, must ensure that two percent of their fleet would be emission-free by 1998,[9] increasing to five percent by 2001 and ten percent by 2003, based on consumer demand.[25] The board clarified that the mandate aimed to address California's severe air pollution issue, which, at that time, exceeded the combined pollution levels of the other 49 states.[26] Other participants of the former American Automobile Manufacturers Association, including Toyota, Nissan, and Honda, also individually developed prototype zero-emissions vehicles in response to the new mandate.[27][28]
In 1994, GM initiated "PrEView", a program in which fifty handcrafted Impact electric cars would be loaned to drivers for durations of one to two weeks, with the stipulation that their feedback and experiences would be documented.[29][30] Volunteers were required to possess a garage suitable for the installation of a high-current charging unit by an electric company.[31] Driver response to the cars was favorable, as were reviews by the automotive press. According to Motor Trend, the Impact "is precisely one of those occasions where GM proves beyond any doubt that it knows how to build fantastic automobiles. This is the world's only electric vehicle that drives like a real car." Automobile called the car's ride and handling "amazing", praising its "smooth delivery of power".[32] That year, a modified Impact set a land speed record for production electric vehicles of 183 mph (295 km/h).[33] Despite the good reception, as highlighted in a front-page feature in The New York Times, GM appeared to be less than enthusiastic about the prospect of having created a thriving electric car:
General Motors is preparing to put its electric vehicle act on the road, and planning for a flop. With pride and pessimism, the company, the furthest along of the Big Three in designing a mass-market electric car, says that in the face of a California law that requires that [two] percent of new cars be "zero emission" vehicles beginning in 1997, it has done its best but that the vehicle has come up short. ... Now it hopes that lawmakers and regulators will agree with it and postpone or scrap the deadline.[31]
According to the report, General Motors viewed the PrEView program as a failure, led them to believe that the electric car was not yet viable, and that the CARB regulations should be removed. Dennis Minano, GM's vice president for Energy and Environment, questioned whether consumers desired electric vehicles. Robert James Eaton, chairman of Chrysler, also doubted the readiness of mass produced for electric cars, stating in 1994 that "if the law is there, we'll meet it ... at this point of time, nobody can forecast that we can make an electric car". These automakers' skepticism was criticized by Thomas C. Jorling, the Commissioner of Environmental Conservation for New York State, which had adopted the California emission program. According to Jorling, consumers had shown significant interest in electric cars. Jorling suggested that automakers were hesitant to transition from internal combustion engine technology due to their massive investments.[31]
First generation
Following the PrEView initiative, work on the General Motors electric car program persisted. While the original fifty Impact cars were destroyed after testing was finished, the design had evolved into the GM EV1 by 1996.
Similar to the PrEView program, lessees were pre-screened by GM, with only residents of Southern California and Arizona initially eligible for participation.[40][41] Leasing rates for the EV1 ranged from $399 to $549 a month.[42] The car's debut was marked by a significant media event, featuring an US$8 million promotional campaign incorporating prime-time TV commercials, billboards, a dedicated website, and an appearance at the premiere of the Sylvester Stallone film Daylight. Among the initial lessees were notable figures such as celebrities, executives, and politicians. At the release event, 40 EV1 leases were signed, with GM anticipating leasing 100 cars by year's end. Deliveries began on December 5, 1996.[38] In the first year on the market, GM leased just 288 cars.[43] But in 1999 Ken Stewart, the brand manager for the EV1 program, characterized the feedback from the car's drivers as "wonderfully-maniacal loyalty".[44][45]
Joe Kennedy, Saturn's vice president of marketing at GM, acknowledged concerns regarding the EV1's price, the outdated lead-acid battery technology, and the car's restricted range, stating, "Let us not forget that technology starts small and grows slowly before technology improves and costs go down".[38] Some groups opposing taxation expressed disapproval of the exemptions and tax credits given to EV1 lessees, arguing it amounted to government-subsidized driving for affluent individuals.[38] Certain groups, such as the fake consumer organization "Californians Against Utility Company Abuse", which opposed the use of taxpayer funds for public EV charging stations, were accused of being funded by oil companies with interests in maintaining the dominance of gasoline cars.[46]
Marvin Rush, a cinematographer for the TV series Star Trek: Voyager, noticed that General Motors was not adequately promoting the EV1. Concerned, he personally invested $20,000 to create and broadcast four unofficial radio commercials for the car. Although GM initially opposed this initiative, their stance shifted later on. They decided to endorse the commercials and reimburse Rush for his expenses. In 1997 the company allocated US$10 million for EV1 advertising and pledged to raise this amount by an additional US$5 million the next year.[47]
Second generation
In 1998 for the 1999 model year General Motors released a second iteration of the EV1. Noteworthy improvements included lower production costs, quieter operation, extensive weight reduction, and the advent of a
On March 2, 2000 General Motors issued a recall for 450 first generation EV1s. The automaker had determined that a faulty charge port cable could eventually build up enough heat to catch on fire.[55] Sixteen "thermal incidents" were reported, including at least one fire that resulted in the destruction of a charging vehicle.[56] The recall did not affect second generation EV1s.[57]
Costs
GM established lease payments for the EV1 based on an initial vehicle price of US$33,995.[58] Lease payments varied from approximately $299 to $574 per month, contingent upon the availability of state rebates.[59] An industry official suggested that each EV1 cost the company around US$80,000, including research, development and other associated costs;[60] other estimates placed the vehicle's actual cost as high as $100,000.[58] GM invested slightly less than $500 million into the EV1 and electric vehicle-related technologies,[61] and over $1 billion in total.[62][63]
Design
Construction and technology
In order to enhance its efficiency, extensive wind-tunnel testing was conducted on the EV1, and General Motors additionally implemented partial
Its recyclable aluminum structure was the world's lightest, weighing 290 pounds (130 kg).
Traditionally vehicles use heat produced by the engine to heat the passenger compartment. But since electric vehicles generate minimal waste heat, an alternative solution had to be conceived. General Motors opted for a heat pump to regulate the temperature inside the EV1, consuming a third of the energy required by a traditional unit for both cooling and heating. Nevertheless the system effectively warmed passengers only when temperatures exceed 30 °C (86 °F). To address colder climates, upcoming electric vehicles were anticipated to incorporate heat pumps alongside compact fuel-fired heaters.[64]
Drivetrain and battery
The electric motor in the General Motors EV1 operated on a 3-phase AC induction system, generating 137 brake horsepower (102 kW) at 7,000 revolutions per minute (RPMs).[70][73] The EV1 could maintain its full torque capacity across its entire power range, delivering 110 pound-feet (150 N⋅m) of torque from 0 to 7,000 RPMs.[74][75] Power was transmitted to the front wheels through an integrated single-speed reduction transmission.[76][77][78]
The first generation EV1 models featured
The EV1 utilized the
Conversions
General Motors revealed a family of
Demise
Despite favorable customer reception, General Motors believed that electric cars occupied an unprofitable niche of the automobile market.
58 EV1 drivers submitted letters along with deposit checks to GM, seeking lease extensions with no financial burden on the automaker. These drivers indicated their willingness to cover maintenance and repair expenses for the EV1, while granting GM the authority to terminate the lease in case of costly repairs. Despite this proposal, in June 2002 GM declined the offer and returned the checks, totalling over US$22,000.
In 2003 Peter Horton, an actor who also reported for the Los Angeles Times, sought to lease an EV1 from GM but was informed that he "was welcome to join their waiting list [of a few thousand] along with [an undisclosed number of] others for an indefinite period of time, but his chances of getting a car were slim".[25] In March 2005 GM spokesman Dave Barthmuss discussed the EV1 with The Washington Post, noting that "There [was] an extremely passionate, enthusiastic and loyal following for this particular vehicle [...] There simply [were not] enough of them at any given time to make a viable business proposition for GM to pursue long term".[123]
By the end of August 2004 General Motors had reclaimed all leased EV1s from their lessees, resulting in the absence of any EV1s on the road. However, one EV1 was showcased at the Main Street in Motion exhibit at
Reaction and image
Since its demise and destruction, General Motors' decision to cancel the EV1 has generated dispute and controversy.
As car sales declined later in the decade amid the onset of global oil and financial crises, perspectives on the EV1 program underwent a shift. In 2006 Wagoner admitted that his decision to discontinue the EV1 electric-car program and neglect hybrid development was his biggest regret during his tenure at GM. He emphasized that while it didn't directly impact profitability, it did tarnish the company's image.
Legacy and post-demise
The demise of the EV1 inspired the conception of the American battery electric carmaker
Research showed that manufacturers were at least a decade behind in terms of electric vehicle adoption, technology, and infrastructure. While EV1 is considered ahead of its time, it could also be seen as a product of its era and the technologies available at that time. Lead-acid and NiMH batteries had been around for decades, aerodynamics were well understood, and electric motors were already in widespread use.[15]
As part of GM's vehicle electrification strategy,
In popular media
The EV1's demise is explored in the 2006 documentary film titled "
The American news magazine Time named the EV1 as one of the "50 Worst Cars of All Time". The magazine lauded its design and engineering, stating that it "was a marvel of engineering [and was] absolutely the best electric vehicle anyone had ever seen". But they criticized it for being very expensive to build, which led GM executives to terminating the program. They described GM as the company that "killed the electric car".[147]
See also
- Chevrolet Spark EV
- Chevrolet Bolt EV
- Chevrolet Volt
- Chevrolet S-10 EV
- Patent encumbrance of large automotive NiMH batteries
- Battery electric vehicle
- Plug-in electric vehicle
- List of production battery electric vehicles
Notes, citations and sources
Notes
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External links
- Eulogy for the EV 1, EV World (archived through the Wayback Machine)
- Emissions-free car on trial, The Boston Globe (archived through the Wayback Machine)