Gaels

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Gaels
Na Gaeil · Na Gàidheil · Ny Gaeil
Scottish Romani Travellers

The Gaels (

Scottish Gaelic: Na Gàidheil [nə ˈkɛː.al]; Manx: Ny Gaeil [nə ˈɡeːl]) are an ethnolinguistic group[6] native to Ireland, Scotland and the Isle of Man.[a][10] They are associated with the Gaelic languages: a branch of the Celtic languages comprising Irish, Manx and Scottish Gaelic
.

Gaelic language and culture originated in

Pictland merged to form the Gaelic Kingdom of Alba. Meanwhile, Gaelic Ireland was made up of several kingdoms, with a High King
often claiming lordship over them.

In the 12th century, Anglo-Normans conquered parts of Ireland, while parts of Scotland became Normanized. However, Gaelic culture remained strong throughout Ireland, the Scottish Highlands and Galloway. In the early 17th century, the last Gaelic kingdoms in Ireland fell under English control. James VI and I sought to subdue the Gaels and wipe out their culture;[citation needed] first in the Scottish Highlands via repressive laws such as the Statutes of Iona, and then in Ireland by colonizing Gaelic land with English and Scots-speaking Protestant settlers. In the following centuries Gaelic language was suppressed and mostly supplanted by English. However, it continues to be the main language in Ireland's Gaeltacht and Scotland's Outer Hebrides. The modern descendants of the Gaels have spread throughout the rest of the British Isles, the Americas and Australasia.

Traditional Gaelic society was organised into

music, dance, festivals, and sports. Gaelic culture continues to be a major component of Irish, Scottish and Manx culture
.

Ethnonyms

Throughout the centuries, Gaels and Gaelic-speakers have been known by a number of names. The most consistent of these have been Gael,

Dòmhnall are sometimes used for Gaels.[15]

Gael

The word "Gaelic" is first recorded in print in the

Oxford University; due to his work Celtic Britain (1882).[18]

These names all come from the

Proto-Indo-European *weidh-n-jo-.[19][20] This latter word is the origin of Fianna and Fenian
.

In medieval Ireland, the

Irish

Geographia
.

A common name, passed down to the modern day, is "

Old Celtic *Iveriu, likely associated with the Proto-Indo-European term *pi-wer- meaning "fertile".[22] Ériu is mentioned as a goddess in the Lebor Gabála Érenn as a daughter of Ernmas of the Tuatha Dé Danann. Along with her sisters Banba and Fódla
, she is said to have made a deal with the Milesians to name the island after her.

The

Caesar, Pliny and Tacitus, derived from Ivernia the name Hibernia.[23] Thus the name "Hibernian" also comes from this root, although the Romans tended to call the isle Scotia, and the Gaels Scoti.[24] Within Ireland itself, the term Éireannach (Irish), only gained its modern political significance as a primary denominator from the 17th century onwards, as in the works of Geoffrey Keating, where a Catholic alliance between the native Gaoidheal and Seanghaill ("old foreigners", of Norman descent) was proposed against the Nuaghail or Sacsanach (the ascendant Protestant New English settlers).[21]

Scots

Place names in Scotland that contain the element BAL- from the Scottish Gaelic 'baile' meaning home, farmstead, town or city. This data gives some indication of the extent of medieval Gaelic settlement in Scotland.

The

foundation myth of an invasion from Ireland. Other historians believe that the Gaels colonized parts of Western Scotland over several decades and some archaeological that points to a pre-existing maritime province united by the sea and isolated from the rest of Scotland by the Scottish Highlands or Druim Alban, however, this is disputed.[25][26] The genetical exchange includes passage of the M222 genotype within Scotland.[27]

From the 5th to 10th centuries, early Scotland was home not only to the Gaels of Dál Riata but also the

Schottenkloster
founded by Irish Gaels in Germanic lands.

The Gaels of northern Britain referred to themselves as

Albannaich in their own tongue and their realm as the Kingdom of Alba (founded as a successor kingdom to Dál Riata and Pictland). Germanic groups tended to refer to the Gaels as Scottas[30] and so when Anglo-Saxon influence grew at court with Duncan II, the Latin Rex Scottorum began to be used and the realm was known as Scotland; this process and cultural shift was put into full effect under David I, who let the Normans come to power and furthered the Lowland-Highland divide. Germanic-speakers in Scotland spoke a language called Inglis, which they started to call Scottis (Scots) in the 16th century, while they in turn began to refer to Scottish Gaelic as Erse (meaning "Irish").[31]

Population

Kinship groups

MacGregors. Distinctive patterns were adopted during the Victorian
era.

In traditional Gaelic society, a patrilineal kinship group is referred to as a

fian, a 'band of roving men whose principal occupations were hunting and war, also a troop of professional fighting-men under a leader; in wider sense a company, number of persons; a warrior (late and rare)'[35]
).

Using the Munster-based

Irish Gaelic surnames, for example the Eóganacht Chaisil includes O'Callaghan, MacCarthy, O'Sullivan and others.[38][39]

The Irish Gaels can be grouped into the following major historical groups;

Norse-Gael MacLeod in the Hebrides; the MacDonalds claimed to be from Clan Colla.[41][42]

For the Irish Gaels, their culture did not survive the conquests and colonisations by the English between 1534 and 1692 (see

Jacobite risings. During the Victorian-era, symbolic tartans, crests and badges were retroactively applied to clans. Clan associations built up over time and Na Fineachan Gàidhealach (The Highland Clans) was founded in 2013.[46]

Human genetics

Distribution of Y-chromosomal Haplogroup R-M269 in Europe

At the turn of the 21st century, the principles of human genetics and genetic genealogy were applied to the study of populations of Irish origin.[47][48] The two other peoples who recorded higher than 85% for R1b in a 2009 study published in the scientific journal, PLOS Biology, were the Welsh and the Basques.[49]

The development of in-depth studies of DNA sequences known as

Dál gCais (i.e. – O'Brien, McMahon, Kennedy, etc.) who are associated with R-L226.[51] With regard to Gaelic genetic genealogy studies, these developments in subclades have aided people in finding their original clan group in the case of a non-paternity event, with Family Tree DNA having the largest such database at present.[52]

In 2016, a study analyzing

blue eyes.[10][53] Another trait very common in Gaelic populations is red hair, with 10% of Irish and at least 13% of Scots having red hair, much larger numbers being carriers of variants of the MC1R gene, and which is possibly related to an adaptation to the cloudy conditions of the regional climate.[10][54][55]

Demographics

In countries where Gaels live, census records documenting population statistics exist. The following chart shows the number of speakers of the

ethnic identity is slightly more complex, but included below are those who identify as ethnic Irish, Manx or Scottish. It should be taken into account that not all are of Gaelic descent, especially in the case of Scotland, due to the nature of the Lowlands
. It also depends on the self-reported response of the individual and so is a rough guide rather than an exact science.

The two comparatively "major" Gaelic nations in the modern era are Ireland (which had 71,968 "daily" Irish speakers and 1,873,997 people claiming "some ability of Irish", as of the 2022 census)[56] and Scotland (58,552 fluent "Gaelic speakers" and 92,400 with "some Gaelic language ability" in the 2001 census).[57] Communities where the languages still are spoken natively are restricted largely to the west coast of each country and especially the Hebrides islands in Scotland. However, a large proportion of the Gaelic-speaking population now lives in the cities of Glasgow and Edinburgh in Scotland, and Dublin, Cork as well as Counties Donegal and Galway in Ireland. There are about 2,000 Scottish Gaelic speakers in Canada (Canadian Gaelic dialect), although many are elderly and concentrated in Nova Scotia and more specifically Cape Breton Island.[58] According to the U.S. Census in 2000,[3] there are more than 25,000 Irish-speakers in the United States, with the majority found in urban areas with large Irish-American communities such as Boston, New York City and Chicago.

State Gaeilge Ethnic Irish Gàidhlig Ethnic Scots Gaelg Ethnic Manx
Ireland 1,873,997 (2022)[56] 3,969,319 (2011) not recorded not recorded not recorded not recorded
United Kingdom and
dependencies

[b]

64,916 (2011)[2] 1,101,994 (2011)[2][59] 57,602 (2011) 4,446,000 (2011) 1,689 (2000)[60] 38,108 (2011)
United States 25,870 (2000)[3]
33,348,049 (2013)[61]
1,605 (2000)[3]
5,310,285 (2013)[61]
not recorded
6,955
Canada 7,500 (2011)[4]
4,354,155 (2006)[62]
1,500 (2011)[4]
4,719,850 (2006)[62]
not recorded 4,725
Australia 1,895 (2011)[5]
2,087,800 (2011)[63]
822 (2001)
1,876,560
(2011)
not recorded 46,000
New Zealand not recorded 14,000 (2013)[64] 670 (2006)
12,792
(2006)
not recorded not recorded
Total 1,974,178 44,875,317 62,199 16,318,487 1,689 95,788

Diaspora

The Emigrants, painting from 1844. This depicts a Highland Scots family in Gaelic dress migrating to New Zealand.

As the Western Roman Empire began to collapse, the Irish (along with the Anglo-Saxons) were one of the peoples able to take advantage in

Frankish Empire. With the coming of the Viking Age and their slave markets, Irish were also dispersed in this way across the realms under Viking control; as a legacy, in genetic studies, Icelanders exhibit high levels of Gaelic-derived mDNA.[66]

Since the fall of Gaelic polities, the Gaels have made their way across parts of the world, successively under the auspices of the Spanish Empire, French Empire, and the British Empire. Their main destinations were Iberia, France, the West Indies, North America (what is today the United States and Canada) and Oceania (Australia and New Zealand). There has also been a mass "internal migration" within Ireland and Britain from the 19th century, with Irish and Scots migrating to the English-speaking industrial cities of London, Dublin, Glasgow, Liverpool, Manchester, Birmingham, Cardiff, Leeds, Edinburgh and others. Many underwent a linguistic "Anglicisation" and eventually merged with Anglo populations.

In a more narrow interpretation of the term Gaelic diaspora, it could be interpreted as referring to the Gaelic-speaking minority among the Irish, Scottish, and Manx diaspora. However, the use of the term "diaspora" in relation to the Gaelic languages (i.e., in a narrowly linguistic rather than a more broadly cultural context) is arguably not appropriate, as it may suggest that Gaelic speakers and people interested in Gaelic necessarily have Gaelic ancestry, or that people with such ancestry naturally have an interest or fluency in their ancestral language. Research shows that this assumption is inaccurate.[67]

History

Origin legends

Scota and Goídel Glas voyaging from Egypt. From the 15th century chronicle the Scotichronicon.

In their own

Iberia, where their king, Breogán, is said to have founded Galicia.[13]

The Gaels are then said to have sailed to Ireland via Galicia in the form of the Milesians, sons of Míl Espáine.[13] The Gaels fight a battle of sorcery with the Tuatha Dé Danann, the gods, who inhabited Ireland at the time. Ériu, a goddess of the land, promises the Gaels that Ireland shall be theirs so long as they pay tribute to her. They agree, and their bard Amergin recites an incantation known as the Song of Amergin. The two groups agree to divide Ireland between them: the Gaels take the world above, while the Tuath Dé take the world below (i.e. the Otherworld).

Ancient

The Lia Fáil at the Hill of Tara, sacred site of inauguration for the Gaelic High Kings.

During the

King of Tara) was inaugurated on the Lia Fáil
(Stone of Destiny), which stands to this day.

According to medieval Irish legend, High King

Niall Noígíallach in Ailech extended their hegemony.[70]

The Gaels emerged into the clear historical record during the classical era, with

Greco-Roman ethnography (most notably by Ptolemy). The Roman Empire conquered most of Britain in the 1st century, but did not conquer Ireland or the far north of Britain. The Gaels had relations with the Roman world, mostly through trade. Roman jewellery and coins have been found at several Irish royal sites, for example.[71] Gaels, known to the Romans as Scoti, also carried out raids on Roman Britain, together with the Picts. These raids increased in the 4th century, as Roman rule in Britain began to collapse.[71] This era was also marked by a Gaelic presence in Britain; in what is today Wales, the Déisi founded the Kingdom of Dyfed and the Uí Liatháin founded Brycheiniog.[72] There was also some Irish settlement in Cornwall.[71] To the north, the Dál Riata are held to have established a territory in Argyll and the Hebrides.[c]

Medieval

Brythonic
areas.

In the Middle Ages,

Dál gCais), Munster was extended north of the River Shannon, laying the foundations for Thomond.[76] Aside from their gains in Ulster (excluding the Érainn's Ulaid), the Uí Néill's southern branch had also pushed down into Mide and Brega. By the 9th century, some of the most powerful kings were being acknowledged as High King of Ireland
.

A page from the 9th century Book of Kells, one of the finest examples of Insular art. It is believed to have been made in Gaelic monasteries in Ireland and Scotland.

Some, particularly champions of Christianity, hold the 6th to 9th centuries to be a

Johannes Scotus Eriugena.[79] Aside from their activities abroad, insular art flourished domestically, with artifacts such as the Book of Kells and Tara Brooch surviving. Clonmacnoise, Glendalough, Clonard, Durrow and Inis Cathaigh
are some of the more prominent Ireland-based monasteries founded during this time.

High King Máel Sechnaill mac Domnaill was one of the leaders in the struggle with the Norsemen.

There is some evidence in early

Icelandic sagas such as the Íslendingabók that the Gaels may have visited the Faroe Islands and Iceland before the Norse, and that Gaelic monks known as papar (meaning father) lived there before being driven out by the incoming Norsemen.[80]

The late 8th century heralded outside involvement in Gaelic affairs, as Norsemen from

Rathlin and Iona in 795; these hit and run attacks continued for some time until the Norsemen began to settle in the 840s at Dublin (setting up a large slave market), Limerick, Waterford and elsewhere. The Norsemen also took most of the Hebrides and the Isle of Man from the Dál Riata clans and established the Kingdom of the Isles
.

The monarchy of

Bruide mac Der-Ilei, around the times of the Cáin Adomnáin. However, Pictland remained a separate realm from Dál Riata, until the latter gained full hegemony during the reign of Kenneth MacAlpin from the House of Alpin, whereby Dál Riata and Pictland were merged to form the Kingdom of Alba. This meant an acceleration of Gaelicisation in the northern part of Great Britain. The Battle of Brunanburh in 937 defined the Anglo-Saxon Kingdom of England as the hegemonic force in Great Britain, over a Gaelic-Viking alliance.[81]

After a spell when the Norsemen were driven from Dublin by Leinsterman

Brian Bóruma. Through military might, Brian went about building a Gaelic Imperium under his High Kingship, even gaining the submission of Máel Sechnaill mac Domnaill. They were involved in a series of battles against the Vikings: Tara, Glenmama and Clontarf. The last of these saw Brian's death in 1014. Brian's campaign is glorified in the Cogad Gáedel re Gallaib
("The War of the Gaels with the Foreigners").

The Irish Church became closer to Continental models with the

Ó Conchobhair
attempted to build a national monarchy.

Political boundaries in Ireland in 1450, before the plantations

The remainder of the Middle Ages was marked by conflict between Gaels and

Norman invasion of Ireland took place in stages during the late 12th century. Norman mercenaries landed in Leinster in 1169 at the request of Diarmait Mac Murchada, who sought their help in regaining his throne. By 1171 the Normans had gained control of Leinster, and King Henry II of England, with the backing of the Papacy, established the Lordship of Ireland. The Norman kings of England claimed sovereignty over this territory, leading to centuries of conflict between the Normans and the native Irish. At this time, a literary anti-Gaelic sentiment was born and developed by the likes of Gerald of Wales as part of a propaganda campaign (with a Gregorian "reform" gloss) to justify taking Gaelic lands. Scotland also came under Anglo-Norman influence in the 12th century. The Davidian Revolution saw the Normanisation of Scotland's monarchy, government and church; the founding of burghs, which became mainly English-speaking; and the royally-sponsored immigration of Norman aristocrats.[82] This Normanisation was mainly limited to the Scottish Lowlands. In Ireland, the Normans carved out their own semi-independent lordships, but many Gaelic Irish kingdoms remained outside Norman control and gallowglass
warriors were brought in from the Highlands to fight for various Irish kings.

In 1315, a Scottish army landed in Ireland as part of Scotland's war against England. It was led by Edward Bruce, brother of Scottish king Robert the Bruce. Despite his own Norman ancestry, Edward urged the Irish to ally with the Scots by invoking a shared Gaelic ancestry and culture, and most of the northern kings acknowledged him as High King of Ireland.[83] However, the campaign ended three years later with Edward's defeat and death in the Battle of Faughart.

A Gaelic Irish resurgence began in the mid-14th century: English royal control shrank to an area known as the Pale and, outside this, many Norman lords adopted Gaelic culture, becoming culturally Gaelicised. The English government tried to prevent this through the Statutes of Kilkenny (1366), which forbade English settlers from adopting Gaelic culture, but the results were mixed and particularly in the West, some Normans became Gaelicised.

Gaelic Irish men and noblewomen, c.1575
Scottish Highlanders depicted in R. R. McIan's Clans of The Scottish Highlands (1845)

Imperial

During the 16th and 17th centuries, the Gaels were affected by the policies of the

Elizabeth I, culminating in the Nine Years' War
(1594–1603). The war ended in defeat for the Irish Gaelic alliance and brought an end to the independence of the last Irish Gaelic kingdoms.

In 1603, with the Union of the Crowns, King James of Scotland also became king of England and Ireland. James saw the Gaels as a barbarous and rebellious people in need of civilising,[85] and believed that Gaelic culture should be wiped out.[86] Also, while most of Britain had converted to Protestantism, most Gaels had held on to Catholicism. When the leaders of the Irish Gaelic alliance fled Ireland in 1607, their lands were confiscated. James set about colonising this land with English-speaking Protestant settlers from Britain, in what became known as the Plantation of Ulster. It was meant to establish a loyal British Protestant colony in Ireland's most rebellious region and to sever Gaelic Ulster's links with Gaelic Scotland.[85] In Scotland, James attempted to subdue the Gaelic clans and suppress their culture through laws such as the Statutes of Iona.[84] He also attempted to colonise the Isle of Lewis with settlers from the Lowlands.

Since then, the Gaelic language has gradually diminished in most of Ireland and Scotland. The 19th century was the turning point as

north west of Scotland, the west of Ireland and Cape Breton Island
in Nova Scotia.

Modern

The

Gluaiseacht Chearta Siabhialta na Gaeltachta and others; particularly in Connemara; paved the way for the creation of development agencies such as Údarás na Gaeltachta
and state media (television and radio) in Irish.

The last

native speaker
of Manx died in the 1970s, though use of the Manx language never fully ceased. There is now a resurgent language movement and Manx is once again taught in all schools as a second language and in some as a first language.

Culture

Gaelic society was traditionally made up of kin groups known as clans, each with its own territory and headed by a male chieftain.

Ceilidh), and their own sports (Gaelic games and Highland games
).

Language

Emergence

Auraicept na n-Éces, 7th century, explaining ogham.

The

Gaulish language
.

Estimates of the emergence of proto-Gaelic in Ireland vary widely from the introduction of agriculture c. 7,000–6,000 BC to around the first[

epitaphs on pillar-like stone monuments (see Mac Cairthinn mac Coelboth
). Ogham stones are found throughout Ireland and neighbouring parts of Britain. This form of written Primitive Irish is thought to have been in use as early as 1000 BC. The script frequently encodes a name or description of the owner and surrounding region, and it is possible that the inscribed stones may have represented territorial claims.

Contemporary

Respondents who stated they could speak Irish and Scottish Gaelic in the 2011 censuses.

The Gaelic languages have been in steep decline since the beginning of the 19th century, when they were majority languages of Ireland and the Scottish Highlands; today they are endangered languages.[90][91] As far back as the Statutes of Kilkenny in 1366, the English government had dissuaded use of Gaelic for political reasons.[92] The Statutes of Iona in 1609 and the Society in Scotland for Propagating Christian Knowledge in the Highlands (for most of its history) are also notable examples. As the old Gaelic aristocracy was displaced or assimilated, the language lost its prestige and became primarily a peasant language, rather than one of education and government. The spread of the English language has resulted in a vast majority of people of Gaelic ancestry being unable to speak a Goidelic language.

During the 19th century, a number of Gaeilgeoir organisations were founded to promote a broad cultural and linguistic revival.

Pádraig Pearse, imagined an Ireland "Not merely Free but Gaelic as well – Not merely Gaelic but Free as well." Scottish Gaelic did not undergo as extensive of a politicisation at this juncture, as nationalists there tended to focus on the Lowland mythos of William Wallace rather than the Gàidhealtachd.[94]

During the 1950s, the independent Irish state developed

Gaelic medium education. There are also media outlets such as BBC Alba and BBC Radio nan Gàidheal, although these have been criticised for excessive use of English and pandering to an English-speaking audience.[97]

Religion

Pre-Christian

An artistic rendering of the hero Fionn mac Cumhaill

The traditional, or "

holy book" systematically setting out exact rules to follow, but various works, such as the Lebor Gabála Érenn, Dindsenchas, Táin Bó Cúailnge and Acallam na Senórach
, represent the metaphysical orientation of Gaelachas.

The main gods held in high regard were the

Nuada, The Morrígan, Aengus, Brigid and Áine, as well as many others. Some of them were associated with specific social functions, seasonal events and personal archetypal qualities. Some physical locations of importance in Ireland related to these stories include the Brú na Bóinne, Hill of Tara and Hill of Uisneach. Although the sídhe were held to intervene in worldly affairs sometimes, particularly battles and issues of sovereignty, the gods were held to reside in the Otherworld, also known as Mag Mell (Plain of Joy) or Tír na nÓg (Land of the Young). This realm was variously held to be located on a set of islands or underground. The Gaels believed that certain heroic persons could gain access to this spiritual realm, as recounted in the various echtra (adventure) and immram
(voyage) tales.

Christianity

Medieval high cross at Monasterboice

The Gaels underwent

Briton who had been a slave in Ireland.[73] He tried to explain its doctrines by using elements of native folk tradition, so Gaelic culture itself was not completely cast aside and to some extent local Christianity was Gaelicised.[73] The last High King inaugurated in the pagan style was Diarmait mac Cerbaill. The 6th–9th centuries are generally held to be the height of Gaelic Christianity
, with numerous saints, scholars and works of devotional art.

This balance began to unravel during the 12th century with the polemics of

Lord of Ireland") and in Scotland strongly encouraged king David who Normanised that country. Even within orders such as the Franciscans, ethnic tensions between Norman and Gael continued throughout the later Middle Ages,[104]
as well as competition for ecclesiastic posts.

During the 16th century, with the emergence of

staunchly Catholic. Due to the geopolitical rivalry between Protestant Britain and Catholic France and Spain, the Catholic religion and its mostly Gaelic followers in Ireland were persecuted for a long time. In the Scottish Highlands too, the Gaels were generally slow to accept the Scottish Reformation. Efforts at persuading Highlanders in general of the value of this primarily Lowland movement were hampered by the complicated politics of the Highlands, with religious rivalries and clan antagonism becoming entwined (a prominent example was the intense rivalry, even hatred, between the generally Presbyterian Campbells and the generally Catholic MacDonalds), but most Highlanders later converted to Presbyterianism in the 19th century during the breakdown of the clan system. In a few remote areas, however, Catholicism was kept alive and even rejuvenated to some extent by Irish Franciscan missionaries,[citation needed
] but in most of the Highlands it was replaced by Presbyterianism.

The adoption of the Free Church of Scotland (1843–1900) in the Highlands following the Disruption of 1843 was a reassertion of Gaelic identity in opposition to forces of improvement and clearance.[105][106][107]

Notes

  1. ^ Origin and migration theories about the Gaelic peoples vary, as do those about the Gaels as victims of colonization and the roles of the colonists.[7][8][9]
  2. 2011 Census of the United Kingdom; this did not distinguish between those of Gaelic-Irish descent and those of Anglo-Irish descent. The results for this were: 531,087 in England and Wales; 517,907 in Northern Ireland; and 53,000 in Scotland. According to the census, 83% (or 4,399,000) of the population in Scotland identified as "Scottish" and this did not distinguish between Gaelic Highlander and Anglo Lowlander ethnicities. In the rest of the United Kingdom, the Scots were included under White British
    .
  3. Gaelic Scotland as being derived directly from Gaelic Ireland via population movement as laid out in works such as the Senchus fer n-Alban and the Annals of Tigernach. The pioneering figure in this direction is Dr. Ewan Campbell of the University of Glasgow with his 2001 paper Were the Scots Irish?; an archaeologist, he argues that there is no evidence of mass population movement across the Irish Sea for this time period at Dunadd
    .

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Bibliography

External links