Galician language
Galician | |||||
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galego | |||||
Pronunciation | Galician | ||||
Native speakers | 2.4 million (2012)[1] 58% of the population of Galicia (c. 1.56 million) are L1 speakers (2007)[2] | ||||
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Early forms |
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Galician Braille | |||||
Official status | |||||
Official language in | Spain | ||||
Recognised minority language in | El Bierzo (Castile and León, Spain) | ||||
Regulated by | Royal Galician Academy | ||||
Language codes | |||||
ISO 639-1 | gl | ||||
ISO 639-2 | glg | ||||
ISO 639-3 | glg | ||||
Glottolog | gali1258 | ||||
Linguasphere | 51-AAA-ab | ||||
Distribution of the various dialects of Galician in Spain and the extreme north of Portugal[image reference needed]
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Galician is classified as Vulnerable by the UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger [3] | |||||
Galician (
Modern Galician is classified as part of the
Dialectal divergences are observable between the northern and southern forms of Galician-Portuguese in 13th-century texts but the two dialects were similar enough to maintain a high level of cultural unity until the middle of the 14th century, producing the medieval Galician-Portuguese lyric. The divergence has continued to this day, most frequently due to innovations in Portuguese,[7] producing the modern languages of Galician and Portuguese.[8] The
The language is officially regulated in Galicia by the
Classification and relation with Portuguese
Modern Galician and Portuguese originated from a common medieval ancestor designated variously by modern linguists as
It was not until the 18th century that linguists elaborated the first Galician dictionaries, and the language did not recover a proper literature until the 19th century; only since the last quarter of the 20th century is it taught in schools and used in lawmaking. The first complete translation of the
The current linguistic status of Galician with regard to Portuguese is controversial in Galicia, and the issue sometimes carries political overtones. There are
With regard to the external and internal perception of this relation, for instance in past editions of the
Portuguese
The earliest internal attestation of the expression Galician language ("lingoajen galego") dates from the 14th century.[6] In Spanish "lenguaje gallego" is already documented in this same century, circa 1330;[26] in Occitan circa 1290, in the Regles de Trobar by Catalan author Jofre de Foixà: "si tu vols far un cantar en frances, no·s tayn que·y mescles proençal ne cicilia ne gallego ne altre lengatge que sia strayn a aquell" [If you want to compose a song in French, you should not admix Provençal nor Sicilian nor Galician nor other language which is different from it].[6]
Reintegrationism and political implications
Private cultural associations, not endorsed by Galician or Portuguese governments, such as the
According to Reintegrationists, considering Galician as an independent language reduces contact with Portuguese culture, leaving Galician as a minor language with less capacity to counterbalance the influence of Spanish, the only official language between the 18th century and 1975. On the other hand, viewing Galician as a part of the Lusophony, while not denying its own characteristics (cf.
Official relations between Galicia and the Lusophony
In 2014, the parliament of Galicia unanimously approved Law 1/2014 regarding the promotion of the Portuguese language and links with the
A "friendship and cooperation" protocol was signed between the Royal Galician Academy (RAG) and the Brazilian Academy of Letters on 10 January 2019. Víctor F. Freixanes, president of the RAG, stated during the ceremony that "there is a conscience that the Galician language is part of a family which includes our brothers from Portugal, Brazil, Angola, Cape Verde, Mozambique... a territory full of possibilities also for Galician. We always said that Galician is not a regional language, but is in fact part of that international project".[32]
Geographic distribution and legal status
Galician is spoken by some three million people,[
Galician is today official, together with the Spanish language, in the
Controversy exists regarding the inclusion of
History
Porque no mundo mengou a verdade,
punhei um dia de a ir buscar;
e, u por ela fui nom preguntar,
disserom todos: «Alhur la buscade,
ca de tal guisa se foi a perder,
que nom podemos en novas haver
nem já nom anda na irmaindade.»
Because in the world the truth has faded,
I decided to go a-searching for it
and wherever I went asking for it
everybody said: 'Search elsewhere
because truth is lost in such a way
such as we can have no news of it
nor is it around here anymore.'
Airas Nunes (B 871, V 455. 13th century)
Latinate Galician charters from the 8th century onward show that the local written Latin was heavily influenced by local spoken Romance, yet is not until the 12th century that there is evidence for the identification of the local language as a language different from Latin itself.[39] During this same 12th century there are full Galician sentences being inadvertently used inside Latin texts, while its first reckoned use as a literary language dates to the last years of this same century.[40][41]
The linguistic stage from the 13th to the 15th centuries is usually known as Galician-Portuguese (or Old Portuguese, or Old Galician) as an acknowledgement of the cultural and linguistic unity of Galicia and Portugal during the Middle Ages, as the two linguistic varieties differed only in dialectal minor phenomena.
This language flourished during the 13th and 14th centuries as a language of culture, developing
The oldest known document is the poem Ora faz ost'o Senhor de Navarra by Joam Soares de Paiva, written around 1200. The first non-literary documents in Galician-Portuguese date from the early 13th century, the Noticia de Torto (1211) and the Testamento of Afonso II of Portugal (1214), both samples of medieval notarial prose.
Its most notable patrons—themselves reputed authors—were king
Aside from the lyric genres, Galicia developed also a minor tradition on literary prose, most notably in translation of European popular series, as those dealing with King Arthur written by Chrétien de Troyes, or those based on the war of Troy, usually paid and commissioned by noblemen who desired to read those romances in their own language. Other genres include history books (either translation of Spanish ones, or original creations like the Chronicle of St. Mary of Iria, by Rui Vasques), religious books, legal studies, and a treaty on horse breeding.[43] Most prose literary creation in Galician had stopped by the 16th century, when printing press became popular; the first complete translation of the Bible was not printed until the 20th century.
As for other written uses of Galician, legal charters (last wills, hirings, sales, constitutional charters, city council book of acts, guild constitutions, books of possessions, and any type of public or private contracts and inventories) written in Galicia are to be found from 1230 to 1530—the earliest one probably a document from the monastery of Melón, dated in 1231[44]—being Galician by far the most used language during the 13th, 14th and 15th centuries, in substitution of Latin.
Diglossia and influence of the Spanish language
Galician-Portuguese lost its political unity when the County of Portugal obtained its independence from the Kingdom of León, a transition initiated in 1139 and completed in 1179, establishing the Kingdom of Portugal. Meanwhile, the Kingdom of Galicia was united with the Kingdom of León, and later with the Kingdom of Castile, under kings of the House of Burgundy. The Galician and Portuguese standards of the language diverged over time, following independent evolutionary paths. Portuguese was the official language of the Portuguese chancellery, while Galician was the usual language not only of troubadours and peasants, but also of local noblemen and clergy, and of their officials, so forging and maintaining two slightly different standards.
During the reign of
In spite of Galician being the most spoken language, during the 17th century the elites of the Kingdom began speaking Spanish, most notably in towns and cities. The linguistic situation in Galicia became one of diglossia, with Galician as the low variety and Spanish as the high one.[47] In reaction to the relegation of the autochthonous language, a series of literary and historical works (always written in Spanish) appeared in the 17th century through 19th century, meant to vindicate the history, language, people, and culture of Galicia.[48] The period from the 16th century to the early 19th century, when Galician had little literary—and no legal—use, is considered the dark age of Galician language. The Galician spoken and written then is usually referred to as Middle Galician.
Middle Galician
Middle Galician is known mostly through popular literature (songs, carols, proverbs, theatrical scripts, personal letters), but also through the frequent apparition of Galician interferences and personal and place names in local works and documents otherwise written in Spanish. Other important sources are a number of sonnets and other lyric poetry, as well as other literate productions, including the forgery of allegedly mediaeval scriptures or chronicles under diverse pretensions—usually to show the ancient nobility of the forger's family—being these writings elaborated in an archaic looking Galician which nevertheless could not conceal the state of the language during this period.
Middle Galician is characterized by a series of phonetic processes which led to a further separation from Portuguese, and to the apparition of some of the more noteworthy dialectal features, among other phenomenons: emergence of the gheada or pronunciation of /ɡ/ as a pharyngeal fricative; denasalization of nasal vowels in most of Galicia, becoming oral vowels in the east, or a group formed by an oral vowel plus a nasal consonant in the west; reduction of the sibilant system, with the confluence (except in the Baixa Limia region) of voiced and voiceless fricatives, followed by a process of de-affrication which led to different results in the west and in the east.[49]
The most important author during this period of the language was the scholar Martín Sarmiento, unconditional defender and the first researcher of Galician language (history, evolution, lexicon, etymology, onomastics). His Elementos etimológicos segun el método de Euclides (1766), written in Spanish but dealing with Galician, was in fact one of the first comprehensive studies on sound change and evolution of any European language. He also defended that teaching in Galicia should be conducted in Galician, since it was the common language of most people.[50]
Rexurdimento (Renaissance)
During the 19th century a thriving literature developed, in what was called the Rexurdimento (Resurgence), of the Galician language.
The first political manifest asking for the officialization of Galician date to the late 19th century.
An important landmarks was the establishment of the
Following the victory of Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War, the written or public use of the Galician language was outlawed.[52]
Publishing of Galician-language material revived on a small scale in the 1950s.[53]
The Galician language today
With the advent of democracy, Galician has been brought into the country's institutions, and it is now co-official with Spanish in Galicia.[53] Galician is taught in schools, and there is a public Galician-language television channel, Televisión de Galicia.
Today, the most common language for everyday use in the largest cities of Galicia is Spanish rather than Galician, as a result of this long process of language shift. However, Galician is still the main language in rural areas.
The Royal Galician Academy and other Galician institutions celebrate each 17 May as Galician Literature Day (Día das Letras Galegas), dedicated each year to a deceased Galician-language writer chosen by the academy.
Use of the Galician language
Use of Galician splits by age, with over half of those over 45 indicating that Galician is their primary language, with lower numbers for the younger population. Those under 45 were more likely than those over 45 to answer that they never use Galician.
Use of Galician and Spanish in Galicia (2003–2018)[54] | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
2003 | 2008 | 2013 | 2018 | |||||
Always speaks in Galician | 42.9% | 1,112,670 | 29.9% | 779,297 | 30.8% | 789,157 | 30.3% | 778,670 |
Speaks more often in Galician than Spanish | 18.2% | 471,781 | 26.4% | 687,618 | 20.0% | 513,325 | 21.6% | 553,338 |
Speaks more often in Spanish than Galician | 18.7% | 484,881 | 22.5% | 583,880 | 22.0% | 563,135 | 23.1% | 593,997 |
Always speaks in Spanish | 19.6% | 506,322 | 20.0% | 521,606 | 25.9% | 664,052 | 24.2% | 621,474 |
Other situations | 0.5% | 13,005 | 1.1% | 28,622 | 1.2% | 29,536 | 0.8% | 19,866 |
Use of Galician also varies greatly depending on the regions and municipalities of Galicia. While in two areas of the Province of A Coruña (Costa da Morte and the Southeast) more than 90% of the population always or mostly speaks in Galician, only the 15,2% of the population does the same in the city of Vigo.[55]
Region | Comarcas included | Galician speakers (percentage)[a] | Spanish speakers (percentage)[b] | Galician speakers (number)[c] | Spanish speakers (number)[d] |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
A Barbanza-Noia | A Barbanza and Noia | 88.85 | 11.15 | 82,434 | 10,344 |
A Coruña | A Coruña and Betanzos | 33.55 | 66.45 | 137,812 | 272,922 |
A Mariña | A Mariña Oriental, A Mariña Central and A Mariña Occidental | 75.85 | 24.15 | 50,420 | 16,053 |
Caldas-O Salnés | Caldas and O Salnés | 63.40 | 36.60 | 86,575 | 49,980 |
Central Lugo | Terra Chá, Lugo, A Ulloa and Meira | 65.04 | 34.96 | 105,423 | 56,676 |
Central Ourense | Allariz-Maceda, Terra de Caldelas and Terra de Trives
|
69.45 | 30.55 | 30,152 | 13,265 |
Costa da Morte | O Xallas
|
92.43 | 7.57 | 117,630 | 9,627 |
Eastern Lugo | Os Ancares, A Fonsagrada and Sarria | 88.50 | 11.50 | 32,025 | 4,160 |
Ferrol-Eume-Ortegal | 33.75 | 66.25 | 60,202 | 118,162 | |
Northeast Pontevedra | Tabeirós-Terra de Montes
|
81.85 | 18.15 | 50,720 | 11,249 |
O Carballiño-O Ribeiro | Carballiño and O Ribeiro | 76.42 | 23.58 | 30,586 | 9,436 |
O Morrazo | O Morrazo | 40.56 | 59.44 | 31,554 | 46,233 |
Ourense | Ourense | 39.85 | 60.15 | 52,632 | 79,450 |
Pontevedra | Pontevedra | 38.82 | 61.18 | 45,865 | 72,292 |
Santiago | Santiago de Compostela, A Barcala and O Sar | 55.39 | 44.61 | 102,260 | 82,374 |
Southeast A Coruña | Arzúa, Terra de Melide and Ordes | 93.14 | 6.86 | 59,415 | 4,375 |
Southern Lugo | Terra de Lemos, Quiroga and Chantada | 67.19 | 32.81 | 31,065 | 15,172 |
Southern Ourense | A Baixa Limia, A Limia, Verín and Viana | 88.00 | 12.00 | 64,878 | 8,850 |
Southern Pontevedra | O Baixo Miño, O Condado and A Paradanta | 58.56 | 41.44 | 60,392 | 42,737 |
Vigo | Vigo | 25.50 | 74.50 | 99,968 | 292,115 |
- ^ % of the population that always or mostly speaks in Galician. This percentage excludes those that mainly speak in Spanish but also use Galician.
- ^ % of the population that always or mostly speaks in Spanish. This percentage excludes those that mainly speak in Galician but also use Spanish.
- ^ Number of people that always or mostly speaks in Galician. This percentage excludes those that mainly speak in Spanish but also use Galician.
- ^ Number of people that always or mostly speaks in Spanish. This percentage excludes those that mainly speak in Galician but also use Spanish.
City | Always speaks Galician | More Galician than Spanish | More Spanish than Galician | Always speaks Spanish |
---|---|---|---|---|
A Coruña | 5.34 | 14.64 | 31.40 | 48.62 |
Ferrol | 6.71 | 10.98 | 29.59 | 52.72 |
Lugo | 21.34 | 23.36 | 28.88 | 26.41 |
Ourense | 10.71 | 22.80 | 38.85 | 27.65 |
Pontevedra | 8.38 | 14.62 | 35.94 | 41.06 |
Santiago de Compostela | 20.58 | 23.31 | 33.46 | 22.65 |
Vigo | 3.85 | 11.36 | 39,49 | 45.31 |
Dialects
Some authors are of the opinion that Galician possesses no real dialects.
- The resolution of medieval diphthongs in the east, while in the center and west the vowels in the hiatus were sometimes assimilated. Later, in the eastern—except Ancarese Galician—and central blocks, the nasal trait was lost, while in the west the nasal trait usually developed into an implosive nasal consonant /ŋ/.[clarification needed][57][58] In general, these led to important dialectal variability in the inflection in genre and number of words ended in a nasal consonant. So, from medieval irmão 'brother', ladrões 'robbers', irmãas 'sisters' developed eastern Galician irmao, ladrois, irmás; central Galician irmao, ladrós, irmás; western Galician irmán, ladróns, irmáns.[59]
- An exception to this rule is constituted by the hiatus in which the first vowel was a nasalized i or u. In those cases, a nasal, palatal /ɲ/ or velar /ŋ/ was usually inserted: ũa 'a / one (fem.)' > unha (Portuguese uma), -ina > -ĩa > -iña (Portuguese -inha). Nevertheless, in Ancarese and Asturian Galician, this process did not take place: A-G vecía, Ancarese vecĩa vs. standard veciña '(female) neighbor' (Port. vizinha), A-G úa, Ancarese ũa vs. standard unha (Port. uma).
- The resolution of hiatus formed by oral vowels had similar developments, most notably those derived from the loss of /l/, which again had important consequences for the declension of words ending in /l/. So, Medieval Galician animaes 'animals' (sing. animal); central and western Galician animás; eastern Galician animais; Asturian Galician animales (/l/ is preserved).[60]
- In the west, /ɡ/ is rendered as a fricative [x ~ ħ ~ h] (gheada), except after a nasal, where it can become a stop [k].[61]
- Stressed vowel metaphony is most notable in the west and center, while in the east it is unknown. It is triggered by a final /o/, which tends to close open-mid vowels, or by a final /a/ which tends to open close-mid ones.
- There are three main sibilant systems, all derived from the medieval Galician one, which was richer and more complex:[62]
- The common one, extended in the eastern and center regions, presents an opposition /ʃ/ – /s/ – /θ/. In the westernmost parts of this area the opposition of /s/ and /θ/ is lost in postnuclear position, in the coda, both being produced /s/.
- In the coastal western areas the opposition is /ʃ/ – /s/, /s/ being produced in some regions as a laminal or in some others as an apical. Sometimes this system is even further reduced to just a single /s/. On the other hand, in some areas final /s/ is produced as /ʃ/, as in plenty of Portuguese dialects.
- In the Limia Baixa region an old six sibilant system is still preserved, with voiced/voiceless opposition: /ʃ/ – /ʒ/; /s̺/ – /z̺/ (apical) and /s̻/ – /z̻/ (laminal).[63]
Each dialectal area is then further defined by these and other more restricted traits or isoglosses:
- Eastern Galician: Asturian area (Eonavian), Ancares area, Zamora area and Central-Eastern area.
- Central Galician: Mindoniense area, Lucu-auriense area, Central Transitional area, and Eastern Transitional area.
- Western Galician: Bergantiños area, Fisterra area, Pontevedra area and Lower Limia area.
Standard Galician is usually based on Central Galician characteristics, but it also incorporates western and eastern traits and features.
Examples
Galiciana | Medieval Galician (13th–15th c.) | Portuguese | Spanish | Latin | English | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Western | Central | Eastern | |||||
cans [ˈkaŋs] | cas [ˈkas] | cais [ˈkajs] | cães/cããs | cães | perros/canes | canes | dogs |
ladróns [laˈðɾoŋs] | ladrós [laˈðɾɔs] | ladrois [laˈðɾojs] | ladrões | ladrões | ladrones | latrones | thieves |
irmán [iɾˈmaŋ] | irmao [iɾˈmaʊ] | irmão | irmão | hermano | germanus | brother | |
luz [ˈlus] | luz [ˈluθ] | luz | luz | luz | lux, gen. lūcis | light | |
cinco [ˈsiŋkʊ] | cinco [ˈθiŋkʊ] | cinco | cinco | cinco | quinque | five | |
ollo [ˈoɟʊ] | ollo | olho | ojo | oculus | eye | ||
hora [ˈɔɾɐ]b | hora [ˈɔɾa]/[ˈoɾɐ] | hora [ˈoɾɐ] | hora | hora | hora | hora | hour |
cantaste(s)c | cantaches | cantaste/cantache | cantaste | cantaste | cantaste | cantavisti | you sang |
animás | animais | animaes | animais | animales | animalia | animals |
- ^ Bold type indicate official standard spelling. On the phonemic representation.[64]
- ^ Metaphony produced by final /a/ and by final /o/ (usually produced [ʊ]). All the diverse productions are considered admissible. In the east there's little to no metaphony.
- desinencesfor the past tense formation along Galician geography.
Phonology
Grammar
Galician allows pronominal
Galician usually makes the difference according to gender and categorizes words as masculine "o rapaz" (the young man) or feminine "a rapaza" (the young woman). This difference is present in the articles "o / a / os / as" (the), nouns "o can / a cadela" (the dog / the (female) dog), pronouns "el / ela", (he / she) and adjectives "bonitiño / bonitiña" (pretty, beautiful). There is also a neuter set of demonstrative pronouns "isto, iso, aquilo" (this / that). The most typical ending for masculine words is -o, whereas the most typical ending for feminine is -a "o prato / a tixola" (the plate / the frying pan). The difference in the grammatical gender of a word may correspond to a real gender difference in the physical world "xuicioso / xuiciosa" (sensible); the former adjective will qualify a male, and the latter, a female. However, there is no particular reason for objects to be ascribed to a particular grammatical gender or another, it has to do with the gender having been ascribed by tradition and the use of speakers as in the following examples: "o xis / o samba / a mesa / a caricatura" (chalk / the samba / the table / the caricature).
Galician expresses the difference in number with a form for the singular and another for the plural. The most typical suffix to express a plural number is "s", "cantiga / cantigas".
There are two different ways of addressing people: one is the most usual informal pronoun "ti" for the second person singular and "vos" for the second person plural. There are formal ways of addressing directly people "vostede" for the singular and "vostedes" for the plural.
The last review of the official grammar has established that, if there is no risk of confusion, the exclamation and question marks will appear only at the end of the sentence, thus deprecating the general use of Spanish-like inverted question and exclamation marks.
The verb is inflected. There are regular and irregular verbs in the language. All verbs will appear listed by means of their infinitive form in dictionaries, and there are three typical endings for verbs "-ar / -er / -ir".
Orthography
The current official Galician orthography is guided by the "Normas ortográficas e morfolóxicas do Idioma Galego" (NOMIGa),[65] first introduced in 1982, by the Royal Galician Academy (RAG), based on a report by the Instituto da Lingua Galega (ILG). These norms were not accepted by some sectors desiring a norm closer to modern Portuguese (see reintegrationism). In July 2003, the Royal Galician Academy modified the language normative to admit and promote some archaic Galician-Portuguese forms conserved in modern Portuguese, merging the NOMIG and the main proposals of the moderate sectors of reintegrationism; the resulting orthography is used by the vast majority of media, cultural production and virtually all official matters including education.
The reintegrationist movement opts for the use of writing systems that range from adapted to whole Portuguese orthography.
Phoneme (IPA) | Main allophones[66] | Graphemes | Example |
---|---|---|---|
/b/ | [b], [β̞] | b, v | bebo [ˈbeβ̞ʊ] '(I) drink', alva or alba [ˈalβ̞ɐ] 'sunrise', vaca [ˈbakɐ] 'cow', cova [ˈkɔβ̞ɐ] 'cave' |
/θ/ | [θ] (dialectal [s]) | c, ç, z or c, z | macio [ˈmaθjʊ] 'soft', caçar or cazar [kɑˈsaɾ] 'to hunt', cruz [ˈkɾuθ] 'cross' |
/tʃ/ | [tʃ] | ch | chamar [tʃaˈmaɾ] 'to call', achar [aˈtʃaɾ] 'to find' |
/d/ | [d], [ð̞] | d | vida [ˈbið̞ɐ] 'life', quadro or cadro [ˈkað̞ɾʊ] 'frame' |
/f/ | [f] | f | feltro [ˈfɛltɾʊ] 'felt', freixo [ˈfɾejʃʊ] 'ash-tree' |
/ɡ/ | [ɡ], [ɣ] (dialectal [ħ]) | g, gu | fungo [ˈfuŋɡʊ] 'fungus', guerra [ˈɡɛrɐ] 'war', o gato [ʊ ˈɣatʊ] 'the cat' |
/ɟ/ | [ɟ] | lh or ll | molhado or mollado [moˈɟað̞ʊ] 'wet' |
/k/ | [k] | c, qu | casa [ˈkasɐ] 'house', querer [keˈɾeɾ] 'to want' |
/l/ | [l] | l | lua or lúa [ˈluɐ] 'moon', algo [ˈalɣʊ] 'something', mel [ˈmɛl] 'honey' |
/m/ | [m], [ŋ][68] | m | memória or memoria [meˈmɔɾjɐ] 'memory', campo [ˈkampʊ] 'field', álbum [ˈalβuŋ] |
/n/ | [n], [m], [ŋ][68] | n | ninho or niño [ˈniɲʊ] 'nest', onte [ˈɔntɪ] 'yesterday', conversar [kombeɾˈsaɾ] 'to talk', irmão or irmán [iɾˈmaŋ] 'brother' |
/ɲ/ | [ɲ][68] | nh or ñ | manhã or mañá [maˈɲa] 'morning' |
/ŋ/ | [ŋ][68] | mh or nh | algumha or algunha [alˈɣuŋɐ] 'some' |
/p/ | [p] | p | carpa [ˈkaɾpɐ] 'carp' |
/ɾ/ | [ɾ] | r | hora [ˈɔɾɐ] 'hour', colher or coller [koˈɟeɾ] 'to grab' |
/r/ | [r] | r, rr | rato [ˈratʊ] 'mouse', carro [ˈkarʊ] 'cart' |
/s/ | [s̺] (dialectal [s̻]),[69] [z̺] | s, ss or s | selo [ˈs̺elʊ] 'seal, stamp', cousa [ˈkows̺ɐ] 'thing', mesmo [ˈmɛz̺mʊ] 'same', isso or iso [ˈisʊ] "that" |
/t/ | [t] | t | trato [ˈtɾatʊ] 'deal' |
/ʃ/ | [ʃ] | g, j or x[70] | gente or xente [ˈʃentɪ] 'people', janela or xanela [ʃa.ˈnɛ.la] 'window', muxica [muˈʃikɐ] 'ash-fly' |
/i/ | [i] | i | |
/e/ | [e], [ɛ], [i] | e | |
/a/ | [a], [ɐ] | a | |
/o/ | [o], [ɔ], [u] | o | |
/u/ | [u] | u |
Acute accent
The acute accent has some other functions. Sometimes it shows that adjacent vowels represent separate syllables rather than a diphthong. Acute accents are written on top of upper- as well as lower-case letters: Óscar. An acute accent may also be used to distinguish between two words that are otherwise homonyms.
Examples
English | Galician (Official) | Galician (Reintegrationist) | Portuguese | Spanish |
---|---|---|---|---|
good morning | bo día / bos días | bom dia | buenos días | |
What is your name? | Como te chamas? | ¿Cómo te llamas? | ||
I love you | quérote / ámote | amo-te | te quiero / te amo | |
excuse me | desculpe | perdón / disculpe | ||
thanks / thank you | grazas | graças / obrigado | obrigado | gracias |
welcome | benvido | bem-vido | bem-vindo | bienvenido |
goodbye | adeus | adiós | ||
yes | si | sim | sí | |
no | non | nom | não | no |
dog | can | cam | cão | perro (rarely, can)[71] |
grandfather | avó | avô | abuelo | |
newspaper | periódico / xornal | jornal | periódico | |
mirror | espello | espelho | espejo |
English | Galician (Official) | Galician (Reintegrationist) | Portuguese | Spanish | Latin |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Our Father who art in heaven, | Noso Pai que estás no ceo: | Nosso Pai que estás no Céu: | Pai Nosso que estais no Céu: | Padre nuestro que estás en los cielos: | Pater noster qui es in caelis: |
hallowed be thy name. Thy kingdom come. Thy will be done on earth as it is in heaven. | santificado sexa o teu nome, veña a nós o teu reino e fágase a túa vontade aquí na terra coma no ceo. | santificado seja o Teu nome, venha a nós o Teu reino e seja feita a Tua vontade aqui na terra como nos Céus. | santificado seja o Vosso nome, venha a nós o Vosso reino, seja feita a Vossa vontade assim na Terra como no Céu. | santificado sea tu Nombre, venga a nosotros tu reino y hágase tu voluntad en la tierra como en el cielo. | sanctificetur nomen tuum, adveniat regnum tuum, fiat voluntas tua sicut in caelo et in terra. |
Give us this day our daily bread, | O noso pan de cada día dánolo hoxe; | O nosso pam de cada dia dá-no-lo hoje; | O pão nosso de cada dia nos dai hoje; | Danos hoy nuestro pan de cada día; | panem nostrum quotidianum da nobis hodie; |
and forgive us our trespasses, as we forgive those who trespass against us, | e perdóanos as nosas ofensas como tamén perdoamos nós a quen nos ten ofendido; | e perdoa-nos as nossas ofensas como também perdoamos nós a quem nos tem ofendido; | Perdoai-nos as nossas ofensas assim como nós perdoamos a quem nos tem ofendido; | y perdónanos nuestras ofensas como también nosotros perdonamos a los que nos ofenden; | et dimitte nobis debita nostra sicut et nos dimittimus debitoribus nostris; |
and let us not fall into temptation, but liberate us from evil. | e non nos deixes caer na tentación, mais líbranos do mal. | e nom nos deixes cair na tentaçom, mas livra-nos do mal. | e não nos deixeis cair em tentação, mas livrai-nos do mal. | y no nos dejes caer en tentación, sino líbranos del mal. | et ne nos inducas in tentationem; sed libera nos a malo. |
Amen. | Amén. | Amém. | Amén. | Amen. |
See also
- Barallete
- Castrapo
- Fala dos arxiñas, a jargon of Galician masons
- Galician-language literature
- Galicia irredenta
- Languages of Spain
- Leonese language
- List of Galician words of Celtic origin
Notes
References
- ^ a b Galician at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
- ^ "Observatorio da Lingua Galega". Observatorio da Lingua Galega. Archived from the original on 22 August 2013. Retrieved 17 October 2015.
- ^ "Galician". UNESCO WAL. Archived from the original on 25 February 2024. Retrieved 27 January 2024.
- ^ "galicia". Merriam-Webster. 29 December 2023.
- ^ "Galician". Oxford Dictionaries. Archived from the original on 11 October 2017.
- ^ a b c Mariño Paz 1998, p. 142.
- .
- ISBN 9789723107463.
- ^ "Reintegracionismo e Reintegracionistas". Associaçom Galega da Língua (in Galician).
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value (help) - ^ Fernández Rei 2003, p. 17.
- ^ a b Lindley, Luís F. (1971), "Nova Proposta de Classificação dos Dialectos Galego-Portugueses" [New Proposal for the Classification of Galician-Portuguese Dialects] (PDF), Boletim de Filologia, Lisboa, Centro de Estudos Filológicos (in Portuguese), archived from the original (PDF) on 2 November 2006
- ^ Fernández Rei 2003, p. 17. "Today, from a point of view which is exclusively linguistic, both banks of the Minho river speak the same language, since the Minhoto and Trás-os-Montes dialects are a continuation of the Galician varieties, sharing common traits that differentiate them from the dialect of Central and Southern Portugal; but at the level of the common language, and in a sociolinguistic perspective, in the west of the peninsula there are two modern languages, with differences in pronunciation, morphosyntax and vocabulary", ["Na actualidade, desde o ponto de vista estrictamente lingüístico, ás dúas marxes do Miño fálase o mesmo idioma, pois os dialectos miñotos e trasmontanos son unha continuación dos falares galegos, cos que comparten trazos comúns que os diferencian dos do centro e sur de Portugal; pero no plano da lingua común, e desde unha perspectiva sociolingüística, hai no occidente peninsular dúas línguas modernas, con diferencias fonéticas, morfosintácticas e léxicas"].
- ^ Sánchez Rei 2011, pp. 314–387.
- ^ Sánchez Rei 2011, p. 24.
- ISBN 978-84-95415-66-0.
- ^ Vázquez Cuesta, Pilar (22 February 2002). "Non son reintegracionista" [I am not a reintegrationist]. La Voz de Galicia (in Galician). Archived from the original on 8 December 2011. interview given to La Voz de Galicia published on 22 February 2002 (in Galician).
- ^ Fernández Rei 2003, p. 18.
- ^ Montero, Tamara (21 June 2019). "Luís Faro: "Son próximas, pero o portugués e o galego non son a mesma lingua"" [Luís Faro: "They are close, but Portuguese and Galician are not the same language"]. La Voz de Galicia (in Galician). Retrieved 21 June 2019.
- ^ "Patrimonio léxico da Gallaecia" [Lexical heritage of Gallaecia]. Instituto da Lingua Galega (in Spanish). 20 July 2018. Retrieved 3 October 2018.
- ^ Answers to the question "Name of the local language?" in the Atlas Lingüístico de la Península Ibérica.
- ISBN 9788437028958.
- ^ "Os diphtongos são estes ão ẽe ij õo ũu. que temos comũs cõ os Gallegos, cuja lingoa & a nossa era toda quasi hũa." (the diphthongs are these ... which we have in common with the Galicians, whose language and ours was almost one).
- ^ "Da qual lingoa Gallega a Portuguesa se aventajou tanto, quãto & na elegãcia della vemos. O que se causou por em Portugal haver Reis, & corte que he a officina onde os vocabulos se forjaõ, & pulem, & donde manão pera os outros homẽs, o que nunqua honve[sic] em Galliza." (From that Galician language the Portuguese got ahead as far as now we see in its elegance. This was caused because of Portugal having Kings, and a Royal court which is the office where words are forged and polished, and from where they flow to the other people; which Galicia never had.)
- ^ "por todos estes motivos a alterar-se e distinguir-se a nossa Lingua da Galega, que permaneceo, sem alteração nem melhoramento, encantonada em hum Paiz, sem Côrte, e sem Universidade" (because all of these causes our language changed and distinguished from the Galician one, which remained, with no alterarion or improbement, in the country, with no court or study.
- hdl:2183/20096. Retrieved 1 July 2019.
- ^ Mariño Paz 1998, p. 144.
- ^ "História do Reintegracionismo" [History of Reintegrationism]. Associaçom Galega da Língua (in Galician). Retrieved 14 May 2020.
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value (help) - ^ "Trabalhos de sociolinguística galega / Some Works on Galizan Sociolinguistics". Udc.es. 13 December 2004. Retrieved 30 June 2012.
- ^ see full text of the law
- ^ "Santiago entra na Unión das Cidades Capitais de Lingua Portuguesa (UCCLA)" [Santiago joins the Union of Portuguese-Speaking Capital Cities (UCCLA)]. Concello de Santiago (in Galician). 20 October 2016. Retrieved 24 October 2016.
- ^ "O CCG ingresa como Observador Consultivo na Comunidade dos Países en Lingua Portuguesa" [The CCG joins the Community of Portuguese Language Countries as a Consultative Observer]. Consello da Cultura Galega (in Galician). 1 November 2016.
- ^ "A RAG e a Academia Brasileira de Letras asinan un acordo de amizade e colaboración" [The RAG and the Brazilian Academy of Letters sign an agreement of friendship and collaboration]. Real Academia Galega (in Galician). 10 January 2019. Retrieved 21 January 2019.
- S2CID 213657213.
- ^ Damaso Alonso Obras (1971). Obras Completas. Volume I: Estudios lingüísticos peninsulares (in Spanish). Gredos. p. 391.
Like a rainbow between two close colours, there is a moment, in the way of the West, when we get to feel us into the Galician area, and another side, to the East, in which we get to feel us into Asturian, but there is also a mixed zone, in which, after all, the distinction depends on our way to appreciate and read will depend on a serial linguistics facts. Some another time, I will deal with this question. It is enough saying today that the oldest statement about Galician extending into Asturias up to the Navia River, (Menéndez Pidal, 'El dialecto leonés', § 1, 2, 1906) cannot be more right, in spite of typical linguistic Asturian features crossing to the west over that border. These dialects between the rivers Navia and Eo, mainly Galician, but with clear Asturian features, are what we call 'Gallego-Asturiano'.
- ^ Laverde y Ruiz, Gumersindo (1862). "O dialecto asturiano". Revista ibérica de ciencias, política, literatura, artes e instrucción pública (in Spanish). Vol. 5. pp. 181–203 – via Hemeroteca Digital (Biblioteca Nacional de España).
- ^ Lapesa Melgar, Rafael (1998). El dialecto asturiano occidental en la Edad Media [The western Asturian dialect in the Middle Ages] (in Spanish). Universidad de Sevilla.
- ^ Alvárez Castrillón, José A., Los Oscos en los siglos X–XII, prólogo Ignacio de la Peña Solar, Oviedo 2001, p. 144–234.
- ^ Fernández Rei 2003, pp. 18–23.
- Historia Compostellanait is stated, as a notable event, that bishop Diego Gelmirez spoke publicly in Latin.
- ^ Souto Cabo 2008, p. [page needed].
- ^ Queixas Zas 2001, p. 14.
- ^ Queixas Zas 2001, pp. 24–61.
- ISBN 978-84-96530-44-7.
- ^ Souto Cabo 2008, p. 51.
- ^ a b Mariño Paz 1998, pp. 188–193.
- ^ Mariño Paz 1998, p. 204.
- ^ Although this trend was initially resisted.[46]
- ^ Mariño Paz 1998, pp. 235–265.
- ^ Mariño Paz 1998, pp. 265–288.
- ISBN 978-84-8288-528-5.
- ^ Gómez Sánchez & Queixas Zas 2001, pp. 93–166.
- ^ Minahan 2000, p. 279. "Following Franco's 1939 victory, the Galicians suffered severe punishment – their culture was suppressed, and edicts were issued forbidding the speaking, teaching, or publishing of books or newspapers in the Galician language."
- ^ a b Minahan 2000, pp. 279–281.
- ^ "Persoas segundo a lingua na que falan habitualmente. Galicia e provincias" [People according to language habitually spoken. Galicia and provinces]. Instituto Galego de Estatística (in Galician). 2019. Retrieved 28 September 2019.
- ^ "Enquisa estrutural a fogares. Coñecemento e uso do galego" [Structural Survey on households. Knowledge and use of Galician]. Instituto Galego de Estatística (in Galician). 2019.
- ^ Fernández Rei 2003, p. 36. "O material recolleito para o citado ALGa (...) faime comparti-la opinion de García de Diego de que non-se pode falar de dialectos propiamente ditos no galego. Nos mapas deste capítulo pode apreciarse a extensión xeográfica desigual dalgúns fenómenos lingüísticos (...) e tamén como as isoglosas (...) poucas veces coinciden"
- ^ Ferreiro 1999, p. 132.
- ^ Fernández Rei 2003, p. 58.
- ^ Fernández Rei 2003, pp. 59–67.
- ^ Fernández Rei 2003, pp. 64–65.
- ^ Fernández Rei 2003, pp. 163–189.
- ^ Fernández Rei 2003, p. 213.
- ^ Fernández Rei 2003, p. 57.
- ^ Freixeiro Mato 2006, pp. [, page needed], .
- ISBN 978-84-87987-78-6. Archived from the original(PDF) on 26 April 2016.
- ^ Freixeiro Mato 2006, pp. 136–188.
- ^ Freixeiro Mato 2006, pp. 175–176.
- ^ a b c d The phonemes /m/, /n/, /ɲ/ and /ŋ/ coalesce in implosive position as the archiphoneme /N/, which, phonetically, is usually [ŋ].[67]
- ^ Regueira 1996, p. 82.[verification needed]
- ^ x can stand also for [ks]
- ^ "real academia española". buscon.rae.es. Retrieved 30 June 2012.
Bibliography
- Fernández Rei, Francisco (2003), Dialectoloxía da lingua galega (in Galician) (3rd ed.), Vigo: Edicións Xerais de Galicia, ISBN 978-84-7507-472-6
- Ferreiro, Manuel (1999), Gramática histórica galega. I. Fonética e Morfosintaxe (in Galician), Santiago de Compostela: Edicións Laiovento, ISBN 978-84-89896-43-7
- Freixeiro Mato, Xosé Ramón (2006), Gramática da lingua galega (I). Fonética e fonoloxía (in Galician), Vigo: A Nosa Terra, ISBN 978-84-8341-060-8
- Gómez Sánchez, Anxo; Queixas Zas, Mercedes (2001), Historia xeral da literatura galega (in Galician), Vigo: Edicións A Nosa Terra, ISBN 978-84-95350-79-4
- Mariño Paz, Ramón (1998), Historia da lingua galega (in Galician) (2nd ed.), Santiago de Compostela: Sotelo Blanco, ISBN 978-84-7824-333-4
- Minahan, James (2000). One Europe, Many Nations: A Historical Dictionary of European National Groups. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0-313-04866-1.
- Queixas Zas, Mercedes (2001). Historia xeral da literatura galega [General history of Galician literature] (in Galician). Vigo: A nosa terra. ISBN 978-84-95350-79-4.
- Regueira, Xose (1996), "Galician", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 26 (2): 119–122, S2CID 241094214
- Sánchez Rei, Xosé Manuel (2011). Lingua galega e variación dialectal [Galician language and dialectal variation] (in Galician). Noia, Galiza: Edicións Laiovento. ISBN 978-84-8487-208-5.
- Souto Cabo, José Antonio, ed. (2008). Documentos galego-portugueses dos séculos XII e XIII [Galician-Portuguese documents from the 12th and 13th centuries] (in Galician). A Coruña: Universidade da Coruña. ISBN 978-84-9749-314-7.
Further reading
- Castro, Olga (February 2013). "Talking at cross-purposes? The missing link between feminist linguistics and translation studies". doi:10.1558/genl.v7i1.35. Examines the arguments for and against the use of inclusive language in (literary) translation through an analysis of the "ideological struggle" that emerged from two ideologically disparate rewritings of gender markers into Galician of The Curious Incident of the Dog in the Night-Time, by Mark Haddon(2003), focusing on the ideological, poetic and economic pressures that (still) define the professional practice of translation.
External links
This article's use of external links may not follow Wikipedia's policies or guidelines. (July 2015) |
Galician guides:
- lingua.gal – Galician government's portal on the Galician language
- LOIA: Open guide to Galician Language
- Basic information on Galician language (in Galician, Spanish, and English)
Records, phonetic and dialectology:
- Arquivo do Galego Oral – An archive of records of Galician speakers.
- A Nosa Fala – Sound recordings of the different dialects of the Galician language.
- Amostra comparativa – Comparison between Galician, Portuguese and Brazilian-Portuguese pronunciation (with sound files) (reintegrationist Galician)
Corpora:
- Tesouro medieval informatizado da lingua galega. (in Galician)
- Corpus Xelmirez – A corpus on medieval Galician documentation, in Galician, Latin, and Spanish.
- Tesouro informatizado da lingua galega. (in English and Galician)
Dictionaries:
- Royal Galician Academy Dictionary Archived 22 July 2013 at the Wayback Machine (in Galician)
- Appendix:Galician pronouns – on Wiktionary
- English-Galician CLUVI Online Dictionary (official Galician)
- Galician – English Dictionary: from Webster's Online Dictionary – The Rosetta Edition. (Official Galician),
- A short English-Galician-Japanese Phraselist (Renewal) incl. sound soft (Official Galician), (in English and Japanese)
- Dicionario de dicionarios do galego medieval – A dictionary of Old Galician dictionaries. (in Galician)
- Dicionario de dicionarios – A dictionary of Galician dictionaries. (in Galician)
- e-Estraviz – Isaac Alonso Estraviz's dictionary (on-line). (reintegrationist norm and official norm)
Texts:
- Gallaeciae Monumenta Historica – An on-line repository of medieval texts (in Galician)
- Cantigas Medievais Galego-Portuguesas – A complete DB, containing the totality of the medieval profane lyric. (in Portuguese)
- Biblioteca Virtual Galega (in Galician)
- Cantigas de Santa Maria
Newspapers in Galician:
- Luns a Venres – free daily newspaper (in Galician)
- Sermos Galiza Archived 25 June 2014 at the Wayback Machine – weekly newspaper and online news portal (in Galician)
- Galiciaé.es – online news portal (in Galician)
- Praza Pública – online news portal (in Galician)
- Diário Liberdade – online news portal (in reintegrationist Galician)
- Novas da Galiza – monthly newspaper (in reintegrationist Galician)
- Galiza Livre – pro-independence online news portal (in reintegrationist Galician)
Other links related to Galician:
- Royal Galician Academy Archived 15 September 2020 at the Wayback Machine (in Galician)
- Instituto da Lingua Galega (in Galician)
- Academia Galega da Língua Portuguesa (reintegrationist Galician)
- Associaçom Galega da Língua – Portal Galego da Língua (reintegrationist Galician)
- Movimento Defesa da Lingua (reintegrationist Galician)