Gasoline
Gasoline (
The fuel-characteristics of a particular gasoline-blend, which will resist igniting too early—and cause
Gasoline can enter the Earth's environment as an un-combusted liquid fuel, as a flammable liquid, or as a vapor by way of leakages occurring during its production, handling, transport and delivery.[4] Gasoline contains known carcinogens.[5][6][7] Gasoline is often used as a recreational inhalant and can be harmful or fatal when used in such a manner.[8] When burned, one liter (0.26 U.S. gal) of gasoline emits about 2.3 kilograms (5.1 lb) of
On average, U.S. petroleum refineries produce about 19 to 20 gallons of gasoline, 11 to 13 gallons of distillate fuel
Etymology
The American English word gasoline denotes fuel for
The Patent Cazeline Oil, safe, economical, and brilliant [...] possesses all the requisites which have so long been desired as a means of powerful artificial light.[14]
That 19th-century advert is the earliest occurrence of Cassell's
Coined from
British refiners originally used "motor spirit" as a generic name for the automotive fuel and "aviation spirit" for aviation gasoline. When Carless was denied a trademark on "petrol" in the 1930s, its competitors switched to the more popular name "petrol". However, "motor spirit" had already made its way into laws and regulations, so the term remains in use as a formal name for petrol.[24][25] The term is used most widely in Nigeria, where the largest petroleum companies call their product "premium motor spirit".[26] Although "petrol" has made inroads into Nigerian English, "premium motor spirit" remains the formal name that is used in scientific publications, government reports, and newspapers.[27]
The use of the word gasoline instead of petrol is uncommon outside North America,[28][failed verification][unreliable source?] although gasolina is used in Spanish and Portuguese and gasorin is used in Japanese.
In many languages, the name of the product is derived from the hydrocarbon compound benzene or more precisely from the class of products called petroleum benzine, such as benzin in German or benzina in Italian; but in Argentina, Uruguay, and Paraguay, the colloquial name nafta is derived from that of the chemical naphtha.[29]
Some languages, like French and Italian, use the respective words for gasoline to indicate diesel fuel.[30]
History
The first internal combustion engines suitable for use in transportation applications, so-called
In 1891, the Shukhov cracking process became the world's first commercial method to break down heavier hydrocarbons in crude oil to increase the percentage of lighter products compared to simple distillation.
1903 to 1914
The evolution of gasoline followed the evolution of oil as the dominant source of energy in the industrializing world. Before World War One, Britain was the world's greatest industrial power and depended on its navy to protect the shipping of raw materials from its colonies. Germany was also industrializing and, like Britain, lacked many natural resources which had to be shipped to the home country. By the 1890s, Germany began to pursue a policy of global prominence and began building a navy to compete with Britain's. Coal was the fuel that powered their navies. Though both Britain and Germany had natural coal reserves, new developments in oil as a fuel for ships changed the situation. Coal-powered ships were a tactical weakness because the process of
During the early period of gasoline engine development, aircraft were forced to use motor vehicle gasoline since aviation gasoline did not yet exist. These early fuels were termed "straight-run" gasolines and were byproducts from the distillation of a single crude oil to produce
By 1910, increased automobile production and the resultant increase in gasoline consumption produced a greater demand for gasoline. Also, the growing electrification of lighting produced a drop in kerosene demand, creating a supply problem. It appeared that the burgeoning oil industry would be trapped into over-producing kerosene and under-producing gasoline since simple distillation could not alter the ratio of the two products from any given crude. The solution appeared in 1911 when the development of the
Gradually, volatility gained favor over the Baumé test, though both continued to be used in combination to specify a gasoline. As late as June 1917, Standard Oil (the largest refiner of crude oil in the United States at the time) stated that the most important property of a gasoline was its volatility.[34] It is estimated that the rating equivalent of these straight-run gasolines varied from 40 to 60 octane and that the "high-test", sometimes referred to as "fighting grade", probably averaged 50 to 65 octane.[35]
World War I
Prior to the
On 2 August 1917, the
U.S., 1918–1929
Engine designers knew that, according to the Otto cycle, power and efficiency increased with compression ratio, but experience with early gasolines during World War I showed that higher compression ratios increased the risk of abnormal combustion, producing lower power, lower efficiency, hot-running engines, and potentially severe engine damage. To compensate for these poor fuels, early engines used low compression ratios, which required relatively large, heavy engines with limited power and efficiency. The Wright brothers' first gasoline engine used a compression ratio as low as 4.7-to-1, developed only 8.9 kilowatts (12 hp) from 3,290 cubic centimeters (201 cu in), and weighed 82 kilograms (180 lb).[39][40] This was a major concern for aircraft designers and the needs of the aviation industry provoked the search for fuels that could be used in higher-compression engines.
Between 1917 and 1919, the amount of thermally cracked gasoline utilized almost doubled. Also, the use of natural gasoline increased greatly. During this period, many U.S. states established specifications for motor gasoline but none of these agreed and they were unsatisfactory from one standpoint or another. Larger oil refiners began to specify unsaturated material percentage (thermally cracked products caused gumming in both use and storage while unsaturated hydrocarbons are more reactive and tend to combine with impurities leading to gumming). In 1922, the U.S. government published the first specifications for aviation gasolines (two grades were designated as "fighting" and "domestic" and were governed by boiling points, color, sulfur content, and a gum formation test) along with one "motor" grade for automobiles. The gum test essentially eliminated thermally cracked gasoline from aviation usage and thus aviation gasolines reverted to fractionating straight-run naphthas or blending straight-run and highly treated thermally cracked naphthas. This situation persisted until 1929.[41]
The automobile industry reacted to the increase in thermally cracked gasoline with alarm. Thermal cracking produced large amounts of both
Being very unhappy with the consequent reduction in overall gasoline quality, automobile manufacturers suggested imposing a quality standard on the oil suppliers. The oil industry in turn accused the automakers of not doing enough to improve vehicle economy, and the dispute became known within the two industries as "the fuel problem". Animosity grew between the industries, each accusing the other of not doing anything to resolve matters, and their relationship deteriorated. The situation was only resolved when the
Leaded gasoline controversy, 1924–1925
With the increased use of thermally cracked gasolines came an increased concern regarding its effects on abnormal combustion, and this led to research for antiknock additives. In the late 1910s, researchers such as A.H. Gibson, Harry Ricardo, Thomas Midgley Jr., and Thomas Boyd began to investigate abnormal combustion. Beginning in 1916, Charles F. Kettering of General Motors began investigating additives based on two paths, the "high percentage" solution (where large quantities of ethanol were added) and the "low percentage" solution (where only 0.53-1.1 g/L or 0.071-0.147 oz / U.S. gal were needed). The "low percentage" solution ultimately led to the discovery of tetraethyllead (TEL) in December 1921, a product of the research of Midgley and Boyd and the defining component of leaded gasoline. This innovation started a cycle of improvements in fuel efficiency that coincided with the large-scale development of oil refining to provide more products in the boiling range of gasoline. Ethanol could not be patented but TEL could, so Kettering secured a patent for TEL and began promoting it instead of other options.
The dangers of compounds containing lead were well-established by then and Kettering was directly warned by Robert Wilson of MIT, Reid Hunt of Harvard, Yandell Henderson of Yale, and Erik Krause of the University of Potsdam in Germany about its use. Krause had worked on tetraethyllead for many years and called it "a creeping and malicious poison" that had killed a member of his dissertation committee.[46][47] On 27 October 1924, newspaper articles around the nation told of the workers at the Standard Oil refinery near Elizabeth, New Jersey who were producing TEL and were suffering from lead poisoning. By 30 October, the death toll had reached five.[47] In November, the New Jersey Labor Commission closed the Bayway refinery and a grand jury investigation was started which had resulted in no charges by February 1925. Leaded gasoline sales were banned in New York City, Philadelphia, and New Jersey. General Motors, DuPont, and Standard Oil, who were partners in Ethyl Corporation, the company created to produce TEL, began to argue that there were no alternatives to leaded gasoline that would maintain fuel efficiency and still prevent engine knocking. After several industry-funded flawed studies reported that TEL-treated gasoline was not a public health issue, the controversy subsided.[47]
U.S., 1930–1941
In the five years prior to 1929, a great amount of experimentation was conducted on different testing methods for determining fuel resistance to abnormal combustion. It appeared engine knocking was dependent on a wide variety of parameters including compression, ignition timing, cylinder temperature, air-cooled or water-cooled engines, chamber shapes, intake temperatures, lean or rich mixtures, and others. This led to a confusing variety of test engines that gave conflicting results, and no standard rating scale existed. By 1929, it was recognized by most aviation gasoline manufacturers and users that some kind of antiknock rating must be included in government specifications. In 1929, the
During this period, research showed that hydrocarbon structure was extremely important to the antiknocking properties of fuel. Straight-chain
By 1935, there were seven different aviation grades based on octane rating, two Army grades, four Navy grades, and three commercial grades including the introduction of 100-octane aviation gasoline. By 1937, the Army established 100-octane as the standard fuel for combat aircraft, and to add to the confusion, the government now recognized 14 different grades, in addition to 11 others in foreign countries. With some companies required to stock 14 grades of aviation fuel, none of which could be interchanged, the effect on the refiners was negative. The refining industry could not concentrate on large capacity conversion processes for so many different grades and a solution had to be found. By 1941, principally through the efforts of the Cooperative Fuel Research Committee, the number of grades for aviation fuels was reduced to three: 73, 91, and 100 octane.[51]
The development of 100-octane aviation gasoline on an economic scale was due in part to Jimmy Doolittle, who had become Aviation Manager of Shell Oil Company. He convinced Shell to invest in refining capacity to produce 100-octane on a scale that nobody needed since no aircraft existed that required a fuel that nobody made. Some fellow employees would call his effort "Doolittle's million-dollar blunder" but time would prove Doolittle correct. Before this, the Army had considered 100-octane tests using pure octane but at $6.6 per liter ($25/U.S. gal), the price prevented this from happening. In 1929, Stanavo Specification Board Inc. was organized by the Standard Oil companies of California, Indiana, and New Jersey to improve aviation fuels and oils and by 1935 had placed their first 100 octane fuel on the market, Stanavo Ethyl Gasoline 100. It was used by the Army, engine manufacturers and airlines for testing and for air racing and record flights.[52] By 1936, tests at Wright Field using the new, cheaper alternatives to pure octane proved the value of 100 octane fuel, and both Shell and Standard Oil would win the contract to supply test quantities for the Army. By 1938, the price was down to $0.046 per liter ($0.175/U.S. gal), only $0.0066 ($0.025) more than 87 octane fuel. By the end of WWII, the price would be down to $0.042 per liter ($0.16/U.S. gal).[53]
In 1937,
The search for fuels with octane ratings above 100 led to the extension of the scale by comparing power output. A fuel designated grade 130 would produce 130 percent as much power in an engine as it would running on pure iso-octane. During WWII, fuels above 100-octane were given two ratings, a rich and a lean mixture, and these would be called 'performance numbers' (PN). 100-octane aviation gasoline would be referred to as 130/100 grade.[55]
World War II
Germany
Oil and its byproducts, especially high-octane aviation gasoline, would prove to be a driving concern for how Germany conducted the war. As a result of the lessons of World War I, Germany had stockpiled oil and gasoline for its
Even after the Nazis conquered the vast territories of Europe, this did not help the gasoline shortage. This area had never been self-sufficient in oil before the war. In 1938, the area that would become Nazi-occupied produced 575,000 barrels (91,400 m3; 3,230,000 cu ft) per day. In 1940, total production under German control amounted to only 234,550 barrels (37,290 m3; 1,316,900 cu ft).[57] By early 1941 and the depletion of German gasoline reserves, Adolf Hitler saw the invasion of Russia to seize the Polish oil fields and the Russian oil in the Caucasus as the solution to the German gasoline shortage. As early as July 1941, following the 22 June start of Operation Barbarossa, certain Luftwaffe squadrons were forced to curtail ground support missions due to shortages of aviation gasoline. On 9 October, the German quartermaster general estimated that army vehicles were 24,000 barrels (3,800 m3; 130,000 cu ft) short of gasoline requirements.[58]
Virtually all of Germany's aviation gasoline came from synthetic oil plants that hydrogenated coals and coal tars. These processes had been developed during the 1930s as an effort to achieve fuel independence. There were two grades of aviation gasoline produced in volume in Germany, the B-4 or blue grade and the C-3 or green grade, which accounted for about two-thirds of all production. B-4 was equivalent to 89-octane and the C-3 was roughly equal to the U.S. 100-octane, though lean mixture was rated around 95-octane and was poorer than the U.S. version. Maximum output achieved in 1943 reached 52,200 barrels (8,300 m3; 293,000 cu ft) a day before the Allies decided to target the synthetic fuel plants. Through captured enemy aircraft and analysis of the gasoline found in them, both the Allies and the Axis powers were aware of the quality of the aviation gasoline being produced and this prompted an octane race to achieve the advantage in aircraft performance. Later in the war, the C-3 grade was improved to where it was equivalent to the U.S. 150 grade (rich mixture rating).[59]
Japan
Japan, like Germany, had almost no domestic oil supply and by the late 1930s, produced only seven percent of its own oil while importing the rest – 80 percent from the U.S.. As Japanese aggression grew in China (
The debate inside the Japanese government as to its oil and gasoline situation was leading to invasion of the Dutch East Indies but this would mean war with the U.S., whose Pacific fleet was a threat to their flank. This situation led to the decision to attack the U.S. fleet at Pearl Harbor before proceeding with the Dutch East Indies invasion. On 7 December 1941, Japan attacked Pearl Harbor, and the next day the Netherlands declared war on Japan, which initiated the Dutch East Indies campaign. But the Japanese missed a golden opportunity at Pearl Harbor. "All of the oil for the fleet was in surface tanks at the time of Pearl Harbor", Admiral Chester Nimitz, who became Commander in Chief of the Pacific Fleet, was later to say. "We had about 4+1⁄2 million barrels [0.72×10 6 m3; 25×10 6 cu ft] of oil out there and all of it was vulnerable to .50 caliber bullets. Had the Japanese destroyed the oil," he added, "it would have prolonged the war another two years."[62]
U.S.
Early in 1944, William Boyd, president of the American Petroleum Institute and chairman of the Petroleum Industry War Council said: "The Allies may have floated to victory on a wave of oil in World War I, but in this infinitely greater World War II, we are flying to victory on the wings of petroleum". In December 1941 the U.S. had 385,000 oil wells producing 1.6 billion barrels (0.25×10 9 m3; 9.0×10 9 cu ft) barrels of oil a year and 100-octane aviation gasoline capacity was at 40,000 barrels (6,400 m3; 220,000 cu ft) a day. By 1944, the U.S. was producing over 1.5 billion barrels (0.24×10 9 m3; 8.4×10 9 cu ft) a year (67 percent of world production) and the petroleum industry had built 122 new plants for the production of 100-octane aviation gasoline and capacity was over 400,000 barrels (64,000 m3; 2,200,000 cu ft) a day – an increase of more than ten-fold. It was estimated that the U.S. was producing enough 100-octane aviation gasoline to permit the dropping of 16,000 metric tons (18,000 short tons; 16,000 long tons) of bombs on the enemy every day of the year. The record of gasoline consumption by the Army prior to June 1943 was uncoordinated as each supply service of the Army purchased its own petroleum products and no centralized system of control nor records existed. On 1 June 1943, the Army created the Fuels and Lubricants Division of the Quartermaster Corps, and, from their records, they tabulated that the Army (excluding fuels and lubricants for aircraft) purchased over 9.1 billion liters (2.4×10 9 U.S. gal) of gasoline for delivery to overseas theaters between 1 June 1943 through August 1945. That figure does not include gasoline used by the Army inside the U.S.[63] Motor fuel production had declined from 701 million barrels (111.5×10 6 m3; 3,940×10 6 cu ft)in 1941 down to 208 million barrels (33.1×10 6 m3; 1,170×10 6 cu ft) in 1943.[64] World War II marked the first time in U.S. history that gasoline was rationed and the government imposed price controls to prevent inflation. Gasoline consumption per automobile declined from 2,860 liters (755 U.S. gal) per year in 1941 down to 2,000 liters (540 U.S. gal)in 1943, with the goal of preserving rubber for tires since the Japanese had cut the U.S. off from over 90 percent of its rubber supply which had come from the Dutch East Indies and the U.S. synthetic rubber industry was in its infancy. Average gasoline prices went from a record low of $0.0337 per liter ($0.1275/U.S. gal) ($0.0486 ($0.1841) with taxes) in 1940 to $0.0383 per liter ($0.1448/U.S. gal) ($0.0542 ($0.2050) with taxes) in 1945.[65]
Even with the world's largest aviation gasoline production, the U.S. military still found that more was needed. Throughout the duration of the war, aviation gasoline supply was always behind requirements and this impacted training and operations. The reason for this shortage developed before the war even began. The free market did not support the expense of producing 100-octane aviation fuel in large volume, especially during the Great Depression. Iso-octane in the early development stage cost $7.9 per liter ($30/U.S. gal), and, even by 1934, it was still $0.53 per liter ($2/U.S. gal)compared to $0.048 ($0.18) for motor gasoline when the Army decided to experiment with 100-octane for its combat aircraft. Though only three percent of U.S. combat aircraft in 1935 could take full advantage of the higher octane due to low compression ratios, the Army saw that the need for increasing performance warranted the expense and purchased 100,000 gallons. By 1937, the Army established 100-octane as the standard fuel for combat aircraft and by 1939 production was only 20,000 barrels (3,200 m3; 110,000 cu ft) a day. In effect, the U.S. military was the only market for 100-octane aviation gasoline and as war broke out in Europe this created a supply problem that persisted throughout the duration.[66][67]
With the war in Europe a reality in 1939, all predictions of 100-octane consumption were outrunning all possible production. Neither the Army nor the Navy could contract more than six months in advance for fuel and they could not supply the funds for plant expansion. Without a long-term guaranteed market, the petroleum industry would not risk its capital to expand production for a product that only the government would buy. The solution to the expansion of storage, transportation, finances, and production was the creation of the Defense Supplies Corporation on 19 September 1940. The Defense Supplies Corporation would buy, transport and store all aviation gasoline for the Army and Navy at cost plus a carrying fee.[68]
When the Allied breakout after D-Day found their armies stretching their supply lines to a dangerous point, the makeshift solution was the Red Ball Express. But even this soon was inadequate. The trucks in the convoys had to drive longer distances as the armies advanced and they were consuming a greater percentage of the same gasoline they were trying to deliver. In 1944, General George Patton's Third Army finally stalled just short of the German border after running out of gasoline. The general was so upset at the arrival of a truckload of rations instead of gasoline he was reported to have shouted: "Hell, they send us food, when they know we can fight without food but not without oil."[69] The solution had to wait for the repairing of the railroad lines and bridges so that the more efficient trains could replace the gasoline-consuming truck convoys.
U.S., 1946–present
The development of jet engines burning kerosene-based fuels during WWII for aircraft produced a superior performing propulsion system than internal combustion engines could offer and the U.S. military forces gradually replaced their piston combat aircraft with jet powered planes. This development would essentially remove the military need for ever increasing octane fuels and eliminated government support for the refining industry to pursue the research and production of such exotic and expensive fuels. Commercial aviation was slower to adapt to jet propulsion and until 1958, when the Boeing 707 first entered commercial service, piston powered airliners still relied on aviation gasoline. But commercial aviation had greater economic concerns than the maximum performance that the military could afford. As octane numbers increased so did the cost of gasoline but the incremental increase in efficiency becomes less as compression ratio goes up. This reality set a practical limit to how high compression ratios could increase relative to how expensive the gasoline would become.[70] Last produced in 1955, the Pratt & Whitney R-4360 Wasp Major was using 115/145 Aviation gasoline and producing 0.046 kilowatts per cubic centimeter (1 hp/cu in) at 6.7 compression ratio (turbo-supercharging would increase this) and 0.45 kilograms (1 lb) of engine weight to produce 0.82 kilowatts (1.1 hp). This compares to the Wright Brothers engine needing almost 7.7 kilograms (17 lb) of engine weight to produce 0.75 kilowatts (1 hp).
The U.S. automobile industry after WWII could not take advantage of the high octane fuels then available. Automobile compression ratios increased from an average of 5.3-to-1 in 1931 to just 6.7-to-1 in 1946. The average octane number of regular-grade motor gasoline increased from 58 to 70 during the same time. Military aircraft were using expensive turbo-supercharged engines that cost at least 10 times as much per horsepower as automobile engines and had to be overhauled every 700 to 1,000 hours. The automobile market could not support such expensive engines.[71] It would not be until 1957 that the first U.S. automobile manufacturer could mass-produce an engine that would produce one horsepower per cubic inch, the Chevrolet 283 hp/283 cubic inch V-8 engine option in the Corvette. At $485, this was an expensive option that few consumers could afford and would only appeal to the performance-oriented consumer market willing to pay for the premium fuel required.[72] This engine had an advertised compression ratio of 10.5-to-1 and the 1958 AMA Specifications stated that the octane requirement was 96–100 RON.[73] At 243 kilograms (535 lb) (1959 with aluminum intake), it took 0.86 kilograms (1.9 lb) of engine weight to make 0.75 kilowatts (1 hp).[74]
In the 1950s, oil refineries started to focus on high octane fuels, and then detergents were added to gasoline to clean the jets in carburetors. The 1970s witnessed greater attention to the environmental consequences of burning gasoline. These considerations led to the phasing out of TEL and its replacement by other antiknock compounds. Subsequently, low-sulfur gasoline was introduced, in part to preserve the catalysts in modern exhaust systems.[75]
Chemical analysis and production
Commercial gas is a mixture of a large number of different hydro-carbons.[76] Chemical Gasoline is produced to meet a number of engine performance specifications and many different compositions are possible. Hence, the exact chemical composition of gasoline is undefined. The performance specification also varies with season, requiring more volatile blends (due to added butane) during winter, in order to be able to start a cold engine. At the refinery, the composition varies according to the crude oils from which it is produced, the type of processing units present at the refinery, how those units are operated, and which hydrocarbon streams (blendstocks) the refinery opts to use when blending the final product.[77]
Gasoline is produced in
The bulk of a typical gasoline consists of a homogeneous mixture of small, relatively lightweight hydrocarbons with between 4 and 12 carbon atoms per molecule (commonly referred to as C4–C12).[75] It is a mixture of paraffins (alkanes), olefins (alkenes), and napthenes (cycloalkanes). The use of the term paraffin in place of the standard chemical nomenclature alkane is particular to the oil industry. The actual ratio of molecules in any gasoline depends upon:
- the oil refinery that makes the gasoline, as not all refineries have the same set of processing units;
- the crude oilfeed used by the refinery;
- the grade of gasoline (in particular, the octane rating).
The various refinery streams blended to make gasoline have different characteristics. Some important streams include the following:
- Straight-run gasoline, sometimes referred to as isomerization. However, before feeding those units, the naphtha needs to be split into light and heavy naphtha. Straight-run gasoline can also be used as a feedstock for steam-crackers to produce olefins.
- Reformate, produced in a hydrocarbons) are more valuable as chemical feedstocks and are thus removed to some extent.
- Catalytic cracked gasoline, or catalytic cracked naphtha, produced with a catalytic cracker, has a moderate octane rating, high olefin content, and moderate aromatic content.
- Hydrocrackate (heavy, mid, and light), produced with a hydrocracker, has a medium to low octane rating and moderate aromatic levels.
- Alkylate is produced in an Motor Octane Number).
- Isomerate is obtained by isomerizing low-octane straight-run gasoline into iso-paraffins (non-chain alkanes, such as isooctane). Isomerate has a medium RON and MON, but no aromatics or olefins.
- Butane is usually blended in the gasoline pool, although the quantity of this stream is limited by the RVP specification.
The terms above are the jargon used in the oil industry, and the terminology varies.
Currently, many countries set limits on gasoline
Gasoline can also contain other
Physical properties
Density
The
Stability
This section needs additional citations for verification. (November 2022) |
Quality gasoline should be
The presence of these degradation products in the fuel tank or fuel lines plus a carburetor or fuel injection components makes it harder to start the engine or causes reduced engine performance. On resumption of regular engine use, the buildup may or may not be eventually cleaned out by the flow of fresh gasoline. The addition of a fuel stabilizer to gasoline can extend the life of fuel that is not or cannot be stored properly, though removal of all fuel from a fuel system is the only real solution to the problem of long-term storage of an engine or a machine or vehicle. Typical fuel stabilizers are proprietary mixtures containing
Gasoline stability requirements are set by the standard ASTM D4814. This standard describes the various characteristics and requirements of automotive fuels for use over a wide range of operating conditions in ground vehicles equipped with spark-ignition engines.
Combustion energy content
A gasoline-fueled internal combustion engine obtains energy from the combustion of gasoline's various hydrocarbons with oxygen from the ambient air, yielding carbon dioxide and water as exhaust. The combustion of octane, a representative species, performs the chemical reaction:
- 2 C8H18 + 25 O2 → 16 CO2 + 18 H2O
By weight, combustion of gasoline releases about 46.7
A high-octane-rated fuel, such as liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), has an overall lower power output at the typical 10:1 compression ratio of an engine design optimized for gasoline fuel. An engine tuned for LPG fuel via higher compression ratios (typically 12:1) improves the power output. This is because higher-octane fuels allow for a higher compression ratio without knocking, resulting in a higher cylinder temperature, which improves efficiency. Also, increased mechanical efficiency is created by a higher compression ratio through the concomitant higher expansion ratio on the power stroke, which is by far the greater effect. The higher expansion ratio extracts more work from the high-pressure gas created by the combustion process. An Atkinson cycle engine uses the timing of the valve events to produce the benefits of a high expansion ratio without the disadvantages, chiefly detonation, of a high compression ratio. A high expansion ratio is also one of the two key reasons for the efficiency of diesel engines, along with the elimination of pumping losses due to throttling of the intake airflow.
The lower energy content of LPG by liquid volume in comparison to gasoline is due mainly to its lower density. This lower density is a property of the lower
Molecular weights of the species in the representative octane combustion are 114, 32, 44, and 18 for C8H18, O2, CO2, and H2O, respectively; therefore one kilogram (2.2 lb) of fuel reacts with 3.51 kilograms (7.7 lb) of oxygen to produce 3.09 kilograms (6.8 lb) of carbon dioxide and 1.42 kilograms (3.1 lb) of water.
Octane rating
Spark-ignition engines are designed to burn gasoline in a controlled process called deflagration. However, the unburned mixture may autoignite by pressure and heat alone, rather than igniting from the spark plug at exactly the right time, causing a rapid pressure rise that can damage the engine. This is often referred to as engine knocking or end-gas knock. Knocking can be reduced by increasing the gasoline's resistance to autoignition, which is expressed by its octane rating.
Octane rating is measured relative to a mixture of 2,2,4-trimethylpentane (an isomer of octane) and n-heptane. There are different conventions for expressing octane ratings, so the same physical fuel may have several different octane ratings based on the measure used. One of the best known is the research octane number (RON).
The octane rating of typical commercially available gasoline varies by country. In Finland, Sweden, and Norway, 95 RON is the standard for regular unleaded gasoline and 98 RON is also available as a more expensive option.
In the United Kingdom, over 95 percent of gasoline sold has 95 RON and is marketed as Unleaded or Premium Unleaded. Super Unleaded, with 97/98 RON and branded high-performance fuels (e.g., Shell V-Power, BP Ultimate) with 99 RON make up the balance. Gasoline with 102 RON may rarely be available for racing purposes.[84][85][86]
In the U.S., octane ratings in unleaded fuels vary between 85[87] and 87 AKI (91–92 RON) for regular, 89–90 AKI (94–95 RON) for mid-grade (equivalent to European regular), up to 90–94 AKI (95–99 RON) for premium (European premium).
91 | 92 | 93 | 94 | 95 | 96 | 97 | 98 | 99 | 100 | 101 | 102 | |
Scandinavian | Regular | Premium | ||||||||||
UK | Regular | Premium | Super | High-performance | ||||||||
USA | Regular | Mid-grade | Premium |
As South Africa's largest city, Johannesburg, is located on the Highveld at 1,753 meters (5,751 ft) above sea level, the Automobile Association of South Africa recommends 95-octane gasoline at low altitude and 93-octane for use in Johannesburg because "The higher the altitude the lower the air pressure, and the lower the need for a high octane fuel as there is no real performance gain".[88]
Octane rating became important as the military sought higher output for aircraft engines in the late 1920s and the 1940s. A higher octane rating allows a higher compression ratio or supercharger boost, and thus higher temperatures and pressures, which translate to higher power output. Some scientists[who?] even predicted that a nation with a good supply of high-octane gasoline would have the advantage in air power. In 1943, the Rolls-Royce Merlin aero engine produced 980 kilowatts (1,320 hp) using 100 RON fuel from a modest 27 liters (1,600 cu in) displacement. By the time of Operation Overlord, both the RAF and USAAF were conducting some operations in Europe using 150 RON fuel (100/150 avgas), obtained by adding 2.5 percent aniline to 100-octane avgas.[89] By this time, the Rolls-Royce Merlin 66 was developing 1,500 kilowatts (2,000 hp) using this fuel.
Additives
Antiknock additives
Tetraethyl lead
Gasoline, when used in high-
In the U.S., the
European countries began replacing lead-containing additives by the end of the 1980s, and by the end of the 1990s, leaded gasoline was banned within the entire European Union. The UAE started to switch to unleaded in the early 2000s.[90]
Reduction in the average lead content of human blood may be a major cause for falling violent crime rates around the world[91] including South Africa.[92] A study found a correlation between leaded gasoline usage and violent crime (see Lead–crime hypothesis).[93][94] Other studies found no correlation.
In August 2021, the
Different additives have replaced lead compounds. The most popular additives include
Lead Replacement Petrol
Lead replacement petrol (LRP) was developed for vehicles designed to run on leaded fuels and incompatible with unleaded fuels. Rather than tetraethyllead, it contains other metals such as potassium compounds or methylcyclopentadienyl manganese tricarbonyl (MMT); these are purported to buffer soft exhaust valves and seats so that they do not suffer recession due to the use of unleaded fuel.
LRP was marketed during and after the phaseout of leaded motor fuels in the United Kingdom, Australia, South Africa, and some other countries.[vague] Consumer confusion led to a widespread mistaken preference for LRP rather than unleaded,[97] and LRP was phased out 8 to 10 years after the introduction of unleaded.[98]
Leaded gasoline was withdrawn from sale in Britain after 31 December 1999, seven years after EEC regulations signaled the end of production for cars using leaded gasoline in member states. At this stage, a large percentage of cars from the 1980s and early 1990s which ran on leaded gasoline were still in use, along with cars that could run on unleaded fuel. However, the declining number of such cars on British roads saw many gasoline stations withdrawing LRP from sale by 2003.[99]
MMT
Methylcyclopentadienyl manganese tricarbonyl (MMT) is used in Canada and the U.S. to boost octane rating.[100] Its use in the U.S. has been restricted by regulations, although it is currently allowed.[101] Its use in the European Union is restricted by Article 8a of the Fuel Quality Directive[102] following its testing under the Protocol for the evaluation of effects of metallic fuel-additives on the emissions performance of vehicles.[103]
Fuel stabilizers (antioxidants and metal deactivators)
Gummy, sticky resin deposits result from
This degradation can be prevented through the addition of 5–100 ppm of
Gasolines are also treated with metal deactivators, which are compounds that sequester (deactivate) metal salts that otherwise accelerate the formation of gummy residues. The metal impurities might arise from the engine itself or as contaminants in the fuel.
Detergents
Gasoline, as delivered at the pump, also contains additives to reduce internal engine carbon buildups, improve
Ethanol
European Union
In the EU, 5 percent
Brazil
The
Australia
Legislation requires retailers to label fuels containing ethanol on the dispenser, and limits ethanol use to 10 percent of gasoline in Australia. Such gasoline is commonly called E10 by major brands, and it is cheaper than regular unleaded gasoline.
U.S.
The federal
India
In October 2007, the Government of India decided to make five percent ethanol blending (with gasoline) mandatory. Currently, 10 percent ethanol blended product (E10) is being sold in various parts of the country.[107][108] Ethanol has been found in at least one study to damage catalytic converters.[109]
Dyes
Though gasoline is a naturally colorless liquid, many gasolines are dyed in various colors to indicate their composition and acceptable uses. In Australia, the lowest grade of gasoline (RON 91) was dyed a light shade of red/orange, but is now the same color as the medium grade (RON 95) and high octane (RON 98), which are dyed yellow.[110] In the U.S., aviation gasoline (avgas) is dyed to identify its octane rating and to distinguish it from kerosene-based jet fuel, which is left colorless.[111] In Canada, the gasoline for marine and farm use is dyed red and is not subject to fuel excise tax in most provinces.[112]
Oxygenate blending
MTBE was phased out in the U.S. due to groundwater contamination and the resulting regulations and lawsuits. Ethanol and, to a lesser extent, ethanol-derived ETBE are common substitutes. A common ethanol-gasoline mix of 10 percent ethanol mixed with gasoline is called gasohol or E10, and an ethanol-gasoline mix of 85 percent ethanol mixed with gasoline is called E85. The most extensive use of ethanol takes place in Brazil, where the ethanol is derived from sugarcane. In 2004, over 13 billion liters (3.4×10 9 U.S. gal) of ethanol was produced in the U.S. for fuel use, mostly from corn and sold as E10. E85 is slowly becoming available in much of the U.S., though many of the relatively few stations vending E85 are not open to the general public.[114]
The use of
Safety
Toxicity
The
People can be exposed to gasoline in the workplace by swallowing it, breathing in vapors, skin contact, and eye contact. Gasoline is toxic. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has also designated gasoline as a carcinogen.[117] Physical contact, ingestion, or inhalation can cause health problems. Since ingesting large amounts of gasoline can cause permanent damage to major organs, a call to a local poison control center or emergency room visit is indicated.[118]
Contrary to common misconception, swallowing gasoline does not generally require special emergency treatment, and inducing vomiting does not help, and can make it worse. According to poison specialist Brad Dahl, "even two mouthfuls wouldn't be that dangerous as long as it goes down to your stomach and stays there or keeps going". The U.S.
Inhalation for intoxication
Inhaled (huffed) gasoline vapor is a common intoxicant. Users concentrate and inhale gasoline vapor in a manner not intended by the manufacturer to produce euphoria and intoxication. Gasoline inhalation has become epidemic in some poorer communities and indigenous groups in Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and some Pacific Islands.[121] The practice is thought to cause severe organ damage, along with other effects such as intellectual disability and various cancers.[122][123][124][125]
In Canada, Native children in the isolated Northern Labrador community of
Australia has long faced a petrol (gasoline) sniffing problem in isolated and impoverished
In Australia, petrol sniffing now occurs widely throughout remote Aboriginal communities in the
Flammability
Gasoline is extremely flammable due to its low
Gasoline exhaust
The exhaust gas generated by burning gasoline is harmful to both the environment and to human health. After CO is inhaled into the human body, it readily combines with hemoglobin in the blood, and its affinity is 300 times that of oxygen. Therefore, the hemoglobin in the lungs combines with CO instead of oxygen, causing the human body to be
Environmental impact
In recent years, with the rapid development of the motor vehicle economy, the production and use of motor vehicles have increased dramatically, and the pollution by motor vehicle exhaust to the environment has become more and more serious. The air pollution in many large cities has changed from coal-burning pollution to "motor vehicle pollution". In the U.S., transportation is the largest source of carbon emissions, accounting for 30 percent of the total carbon footprint of the U.S.[138] Combustion of gasoline produces 2.35 kilograms per liter (19.6 lb/U.S. gal) of carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas.[139][140]
Unburnt gasoline and
Production of gasoline consumes 1.5 liters per kilometer (0.63 U.S. gal/mi) of water by driven distance.[142]
Gasoline use causes a variety of deleterious effects to the human population and to the climate generally. The harms imposed include a higher rate of premature death and ailments, such as
Carbon dioxide
About 2.353 kilograms per liter (19.64 lb/U.S. gal) of carbon dioxide (CO2) are produced from burning gasoline that does not contain ethanol.[140] Most of the retail gasoline now sold in the U.S. contains about 10 percent fuel ethanol (or E10) by volume.[140] Burning E10 produces about 2.119 kilograms per liter (17.68 lb/U.S. gal) of CO2 that is emitted from the fossil fuel content. If the CO2 emissions from ethanol combustion are considered, then about 2.271 kilograms per liter (18.95 lb/U.S. gal) of CO2 are produced when E10 is combusted.[140]
Worldwide 7 liters of gasoline are burnt for every 100 km driven by
Also the International Energy Agency said in 2021 that: "To ensure fuel economy and CO2 emissions standards are effective, governments must continue regulatory efforts to monitor and reduce the gap between real-world fuel economy and rated performance."[145]
Contamination of soil and water
Gasoline enters the environment through the soil, groundwater, surface water, and air. Therefore, humans may be exposed to gasoline through methods such as breathing, eating, and skin contact. For example, using gasoline-filled equipment, such as lawnmowers, drinking gasoline-contaminated water close to gasoline spills or leaks to the soil, working at a gasoline station, inhaling gasoline volatile gas when refueling at a gasoline station is the easiest way to be exposed to gasoline.[146]
Use and pricing
The International Energy Agency said in 2021 that "road fuels should be taxed at a rate that reflects their impact on people's health and the climate".[145]
Europe
Countries in Europe impose substantially higher taxes on fuels such as gasoline when compared to the U.S. The price of gasoline in Europe is typically higher than that in the U.S. due to this difference.[147]
U.S.
This section needs to be updated.(April 2016) |
From 1998 to 2004, the price of gasoline fluctuated between $0.26 and $0.53 per liter ($1 and $2/U.S. gal).[148] After 2004, the price increased until the average gasoline price reached a high of $1.09 per liter ($4.11/U.S. gal) in mid-2008 but receded to approximately $0.69 per liter ($2.60/U.S. gal) by September 2009.[148] The U.S. experienced an upswing in gasoline prices through 2011,[149] and, by 1 March 2012, the national average was $0.99 per liter ($3.74/U.S. gal). California prices are higher because the California government mandates unique California gasoline formulas and taxes.[150]
In the U.S., most consumer goods bear pre-tax prices, but gasoline prices are posted with taxes included. Taxes are added by federal, state, and local governments. As of 2009[update], the federal tax was $0.049 per liter ($0.184/U.S. gal) for gasoline and $0.064 per liter ($0.244/U.S. gal) for
About nine percent of all gasoline sold in the U.S. in May 2009 was premium grade, according to the Energy Information Administration. Consumer Reports magazine says, "If [your owner's manual] says to use regular fuel, do so—there's no advantage to a higher grade."[152] The Associated Press said premium gas—which has a higher octane rating and costs more per gallon than regular unleaded—should be used only if the manufacturer says it is "required".[153] Cars with turbocharged engines and high compression ratios often specify premium gasoline because higher octane fuels reduce the incidence of "knock", or fuel pre-detonation.[154] The price of gasoline varies considerably between the summer and winter months.[155]
There is a considerable difference between summer oil and winter oil in gasoline vapor pressure (Reid Vapor Pressure, RVP), which is a measure of how easily the fuel evaporates at a given temperature. The higher the gasoline volatility (the higher the RVP), the easier it is to evaporate. The conversion between the two fuels occurs twice a year, once in autumn (winter mix) and the other in spring (summer mix). The winter blended fuel has a higher RVP because the fuel must be able to evaporate at a low temperature for the engine to run normally. If the RVP is too low on a cold day, the vehicle will be difficult to start; however, the summer blended gasoline has a lower RVP. It prevents excessive evaporation when the outdoor temperature rises, reduces ozone emissions, and reduces smog levels. At the same time, vapor lock is less likely to occur in hot weather.[156]
Gasoline production by country
Country | Gasoline production | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Barrels (thousands) |
m3 (thousands) |
ft3 (thousands) |
kL | |
U.S. | 8,921 | 1,418.3 | 50,090 | 1,418.3 |
China | 2,578 | 409.9 | 14,470 | 409.9 |
Japan | 920 | 146 | 5,200 | 146 |
Russia | 910 | 145 | 5,100 | 145 |
India | 755 | 120.0 | 4,240 | 120.0 |
Canada | 671 | 106.7 | 3,770 | 106.7 |
Brazil | 533 | 84.7 | 2,990 | 84.7 |
Germany | 465 | 73.9 | 2,610 | 73.9 |
Saudi Arabia | 441 | 70.1 | 2,480 | 70.1 |
Mexico | 407 | 64.7 | 2,290 | 64.7 |
South Korea | 397 | 63.1 | 2,230 | 63.1 |
Iran | 382 | 60.7 | 2,140 | 60.7 |
UK | 364 | 57.9 | 2,040 | 57.9 |
Italy | 343 | 54.5 | 1,930 | 54.5 |
Venezuela | 277 | 44.0 | 1,560 | 44.0 |
France | 265 | 42.1 | 1,490 | 42.1 |
Singapore | 249 | 39.6 | 1,400 | 39.6 |
Australia | 241 | 38.3 | 1,350 | 38.3 |
Indonesia | 230 | 37 | 1,300 | 37 |
Taiwan | 174 | 27.7 | 980 | 27.7 |
Thailand | 170 | 27 | 950 | 27 |
Spain | 169 | 26.9 | 950 | 26.9 |
Netherlands | 148 | 23.5 | 830 | 23.5 |
South Africa | 135 | 21.5 | 760 | 21.5 |
Argentina | 122 | 19.4 | 680 | 19.4 |
Sweden | 112 | 17.8 | 630 | 17.8 |
Greece | 108 | 17.2 | 610 | 17.2 |
Belgium | 105 | 16.7 | 590 | 16.7 |
Malaysia | 103 | 16.4 | 580 | 16.4 |
Finland | 100 | 16 | 560 | 16 |
Belarus | 92 | 14.6 | 520 | 14.6 |
Turkey | 92 | 14.6 | 520 | 14.6 |
Colombia | 85 | 13.5 | 480 | 13.5 |
Poland | 83 | 13.2 | 470 | 13.2 |
Norway | 77 | 12.2 | 430 | 12.2 |
Kazakhstan | 71 | 11.3 | 400 | 11.3 |
Algeria | 70 | 11 | 390 | 11 |
Romania | 70 | 11 | 390 | 11 |
Oman | 69 | 11.0 | 390 | 11.0 |
Egypt | 66 | 10.5 | 370 | 10.5 |
UAE | 66 | 10.5 | 370 | 10.5 |
Chile | 65 | 10.3 | 360 | 10.3 |
Turkmenistan | 61 | 9.7 | 340 | 9.7 |
Kuwait | 57 | 9.1 | 320 | 9.1 |
Iraq | 56 | 8.9 | 310 | 8.9 |
Vietnam | 52 | 8.3 | 290 | 8.3 |
Lithuania | 49 | 7.8 | 280 | 7.8 |
Denmark | 48 | 7.6 | 270 | 7.6 |
Qatar | 46 | 7.3 | 260 | 7.3 |
Comparison with other fuels
This section needs additional citations for verification. (December 2020) |
Below is a table of the
Fuel type | Energy density | Specific energy | RON | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Gross | Net | Gross | Net | ||||||
MJ/L | BTU / U.S. gal | MJ/L | BTU / U.S. gal | MJ/kg | BTU/lb | MJ/kg | BTU/lb | ||
Conventional gasoline | 34.8 | 125,000 | 32.2 | 115,400 | 44.4 | 19,100[159] | 41.1 | 17,700 | 91–98 |
LPG)[a] |
26.8 | 96,000 | 46 | 20,000 | 108 | ||||
Ethanol | 21.2 | 76,000[159] | 21.1 | 75,700 | 26.8 | 11,500[159] | 26.7 | 11,500 | 108.7[160] |
Methanol | 17.9 | 64,000 | 15.8 | 56,600 | 22.6 | 9,700 | 19.9 | 8,600 | 123 |
Butanol | 29.2 | 105,000 | 36.6 | 15,700 | 91–99[clarification needed] | ||||
Gasohol | 31.2 | 112,000 | 31.3 | 112,400 | 93–94[clarification needed] | ||||
Diesel[b] | 38.6 | 138,000 | 35.9 | 128,700 | 45.4 | 19,500 | 42.2 | 18,100 | 25 |
Biodiesel | 33.3–35.7 | 119,000–128,000[161][clarification needed] | 32.6 | 117,100 | |||||
Avgas (high octane gasoline) | 33.5 | 120,000 | 31 | 112,000 | 46.8 | 20,100 | 43.3 | 18,600 | |
Jet fuel (kerosene based) | 35.1 | 126,000 | 43.8 | 18,800 | |||||
Jet fuel (naphtha) | 35.5 | 127,500 | 33.1 | 118,700 | |||||
Liquefied natural gas | 25.3 | 91,000 | 55 | 24,000 | |||||
Liquefied petroleum gas | 25.4 | 91,300 | 23.3 | 83,500 | 46.1 | 19,800 | 42.3 | 18,200 | |
Hydrogen[c] | 10.1 | 36,000 | 0.036 | 130[162] | 142 | 61,000 | 0.506 | 218 |
See also
- Aviation fuel – Fuel used to power aircraft
- Butanol fuel – Fuel for internal combustion engines – replacement fuel for use in unmodified gasoline engines
- Biogasoline – Gasoline produced from biomass - petrol derived from biomass such as algae
- Diesel fuel – Liquid fuel used in diesel engines
- Filling station – Facility which sells gasoline and diesel
- Fuel dispenser– Machine at a filling station that is used to pump fuels
- Fuel saving device
- Gas to liquids – Conversion of natural gas to liquid petroleum products
- Gasoline and diesel usage and pricing
- Gasoline gallon equivalent – Amount of alternative fuel it takes to equal the energy content of one liquid gallon of gasoline
- Hydrogen fuel– Using hydrogen to decarbonize sectors which are hard to electrify
- Internal combustion engine (ICE) – Engine in which the combustion of a fuel occurs with an oxidizer in a combustion chamber
- Jerrycan – Robust pressed steel liquid container
- List of automotive fuel retailers
- List of gasoline additives
- Natural-gas condensate#Drip gas – Low-density mixture of hydrocarbon liquids
- Synthetic gasoline– Fuel from carbon monoxide and hydrogen
- Octane rating – Standard measure of the performance of an engine or aviation fuel
- World oil market chronology from 2003 – Chronology of events affecting the oil market
Explanatory notes
- ^ Consisting mostly of C3 and C4 hydrocarbons
- ^ Diesel fuel is not used in a gasoline engine, so its low octane rating is not an issue; the relevant metric for diesel engines is the cetane number.
- ^ at −253.2 °C (−423.8 °F)
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External links
- CNN/Money: Global gas prices
- EEP: European gas prices
- Transportation Energy Data Book
- Energy Supply Logistics Searchable Directory of US Terminals
- High octane fuel, leaded and LRP gasoline—article from robotpig.net
- CDC – NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards
- Aviation Fuel Map
- Comparison of Regular, Midgrade, and Premium Fuel
- Images
- Down the Gasoline Trail Handy Jam Organization, 1935 (Cartoon)