Gauls

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
The Dying Gaul, Capitoline Museums, Rome

The Gauls (

continental Celtic language
.

The Gauls emerged around the 5th century BC as bearers of

into the Balkans, leading to war with the Greeks. These latter Gauls eventually settled in Anatolia (contemporary Turkey), becoming known as Galatians.[1]

After the end of the First Punic War, the rising Roman Republic increasingly put pressure on the Gallic sphere of influence. The Battle of Telamon (225 BC) heralded a gradual decline of Gallic power during the 2nd century BC. The Romans eventually conquered Gaul in the Gallic Wars (58–50 BC), making it a Roman province, which brought about the hybrid Gallo-Roman culture.

The Gauls were made up of many

military operations, such as those led by Brennus and Vercingetorix. They followed an ancient Celtic religion overseen by druids. The Gauls produced the Coligny calendar
.

Name

The

Middle Breton gallout 'to be able', Cornish gallos 'power').[3] The ethnic names Galátai and Gallitae, as well as Gaulish personal names such as Gallus or Gallius, are also related.[3] The modern French gaillard ('brave, vigorous, healthy') stems from the Gallo-Latin noun *galia- or *gallia- ('power, strength').[2][3] Linguist Václav Blažek has argued that Irish gall ('foreigner') and Welsh gâl ('enemy, hostile') may be later adaptations of the ethnic name Galli that were introduced to the British Isles during the 1st millennium AD.[2]

According to Caesar (mid-1st c. BC), the Gauls of the province of Gallia Celtica called themselves Celtae in their own language, and were called Galli in Latin.[4] Romans indeed used the ethnic name Galli as a synonym for Celtae.[2]

The English Gaul does not come from Latin Galli but from Germanic *

Walhaz, a term stemming from the Gallic ethnonym Volcae that came to designate more generally Celtic and Romance speakers in medieval Germanic languages (e.g. Welsh, Waals, Vlachs).[5]

History

Approximate area of Celtic influence in the 4th century BC, showing the Gauls in green

Origins and early history

Gaulish culture developed over the first millennium BC. The

invaded Rome
circa 390 BC.

By the 5th century BC, the tribes later called Gauls had migrated from Central

Brennus in 390 BC, and raided Italy as far south as Sicily.[1]

In the early 3rd century BC, the Gauls attempted an eastward expansion, toward the Balkan peninsula. At that time it was a Greek province, and the Gauls' intent was to reach and loot the rich Greek city-states of the Greek mainland. But the Greeks exterminated the majority of the Gallic army, and the few survivors were forced to flee.

Many Gauls were recorded as serving in the armies of Carthage during the Punic Wars. One of the leading rebel leaders of the Mercenary War, Autaritus, was of Gallic origin.

Balkan wars

Map of the Gallic invasion of the Balkans

During the Balkan expedition, led by Cerethrios, Brennos and Bolgios, the Gauls raided the Greek mainland twice.

At the end of the second expedition the Gallic raiders had been repelled by the coalition armies of the various

Ptolemaic Egypt, where they, under Ptolemy II Philadelphus (285-246 BC), attempted to seize control of the kingdom.[8]

In the first Gallic invasion of Greece (279 BC), they defeated the Macedonians and killed the

Bolgius
and repelled the invading Gauls.

In the second Gaulish invasion of Greece (278 BC), the Gauls, led by

Persian army had done at the Battle of Thermopylae in 480 BC, but this time defeating the whole of the Greek army.[9] After passing Thermopylae the Gauls headed for the rich treasury at Delphi, where they were defeated by the re-assembled Greek army. This led to a series of retreats of the Gauls, with devastating losses, all the way up to Macedonia and then out of the Greek mainland. The major part of the Gaul army was defeated in the process, and those Gauls survived were forced to flee from Greece. The Gallic leader Brennos was seriously injured at Delphi and committed suicide there. (He is not to be confused with another Gaulish leader bearing the same name who had sacked Rome
a century earlier (390 BC).

Galatian war

circa 60 BC

In 278 BC Gaulish settlers in the Balkans were invited by

Nile River.[8]

Galatians also participated at the victory at

'king' of Galatia. The Galatian language continued to be spoken in central Anatolia until the 6th century.[10]

Roman wars

In the

Massilia had to appeal to the Roman Republic for defense against them. The Romans intervened in southern Gaul in 125 BC, and conquered the area eventually known as Gallia Narbonensis
by 121 BC.

Gallia Cisalpina
(the latter two were part of the Empire).

In 58 BC

Aquitanians and the Belgae. Caesar's motivation for the invasion seems to have been his need for gold to pay off his debts and for a successful military expedition to boost his political career. The people of Gaul could provide him with both. So much gold was looted from Gaul that after the war the price of gold fell by as much as 20%. While they were militarily just as brave as the Romans, the internal division between the Gallic tribes guaranteed an easy victory for Caesar, and Vercingetorix's attempt to unite the Gauls against Roman invasion came too late.[11][12] After the annexation of Gaul a mixed Gallo-Roman culture
began to emerge.

Roman Gaul

After more than a century of

crisis of the third century, there was briefly a breakaway Gallic Empire founded by the Batavian general Postumus
.

Physical appearance

The Dying Gaul, Roman copy of a Hellenistic original, showing the face, hairstyle and torc of a Gaul or Galatian

4th-century Roman historian Ammianus Marcellinus wrote that the Gauls were tall, light-skinned, light-haired, and light-eyed:

Almost all Gauls are tall and fair-skinned, with reddish hair. Their savage eyes make them fearful objects; they are eager to quarrel and excessively truculent. When, in the course of a dispute, any of them calls in his wife, a creature with gleaming eyes much stronger than her husband, they are more than a match for a whole group of foreigners; especially when the woman, with swollen neck and gnashing teeth, swings her great white arms and begins to deliver a rain of punches mixed with kicks, like missiles launched by the twisted strings of a catapult.[14]

1st-century BC Greek historian Diodorus Siculus described them as tall, generally heavily built, very light-skinned, and light-haired, with long hair and mustaches:

The Gauls are tall of body, with rippling muscles, and white of skin, and their hair is blond, and not only naturally so, but they make it their practice to increase the distinguishing color by which nature has given it. For they are always washing their hair in limewater, and they pull it back from their forehead to the top of the head and back to the nape of the neck... Some of them shave their beards, but others let it grow a little; and the nobles shave their cheeks, but they let the mustache grow until it covers the mouth.[15]

Jordanes, in his Origins and Deeds of the Goths, indirectly describes the Gauls as light-haired and large-bodied by comparing them to Caledonians, as a contrast to the Spaniards, whom he compared to the Silures. He speculates based on this comparison that the Britons originated from different peoples, including Gauls and Spaniards.

The Silures have swarthy features and are usually born with curly black hair, but the inhabitants of Caledonia have reddish hair and large loose-jointed bodies. They [the Britons] are like the Gauls and the Spaniards, according as they are opposite either nation. Hence some have supposed that from these lands the island received its inhabitants.

In the novel Satyricon by Roman courtier Gaius Petronius, a Roman character sarcastically suggests that he and his partner "chalk our faces so that Gaul may claim us as her own" in the midst of a rant outlining the problems with his partner's plan of using blackface to impersonate Aethiopians. This suggests that Gauls were thought of on average to be much paler than Romans.[16]

Culture

All over Gaul, archeology has uncovered many pre-Roman gold mines (at least 200 in the Pyrenees), suggesting they were very rich, also evidenced by large finds of gold coins and artifacts. Also there existed highly developed population centers, called oppida by Caesar, such as Bibracte, Gergovia, Avaricum, Alesia, Bibrax, Manching and others. Modern archeology strongly suggests that the countries of Gaul were quite civilized and very wealthy. Most had contact with Roman merchants and some, particularly those that were governed by Republics such as the Aedui, Helvetii and others, had enjoyed stable political alliances with Rome. They imported Mediterranean wine on an industrial scale, evidenced by large finds of wine vessels in digs all over Gaul, the largest and most famous of which being the one discovered in Vix Grave, which stands 1.63 m (5′ 4″) high.

Art

Gallic art corresponds to two archaeological material cultures: the Hallstatt culture (c. 1200–450 BC) and the La Tène culture (c. 450–1 BC). Each of these eras has a characteristic style, and while there is much overlap between them, the two styles recognizably differ. From the late Hallstatt onwards and certainly through the entirety of La Tène, Gaulish art is reckoned to be the beginning of what is called Celtic art today.[17] After the end of the La Tène and from the beginning of Roman rule, Gaulish art evolved into Gallo-Roman art.

Hallstatt decoration is mostly geometric and linear, and is best seen on fine metalwork finds from graves. Animals, with

waterfowl a particular favorite, are often included as part of ornamentation, more often than humans. Commonly found objects include weapons, in latter periods often with hilts terminating in curving forks ("antenna hilts"),[18] and jewelry, which include fibulae, often with a row of disks hanging down on chains, armlets, and some torcs. Though these are most often found in bronze, some examples, likely belonging to chieftains or other preeminent figures, are made of gold. Decorated situlae and bronze belt plates show influence from Greek and Etruscan figurative traditions. Many of these characteristics were continued into the succeeding La Tène style.[19]

La Tène

Scythian art as well as that of the Greeks and Etruscans, among others. The Achaemenid occupation of Thrace and Macedonia around 500 BC is a factor of uncertain importance.[21]

  • Agris Helmet. Discovered in Agris, Charente, France, 350 BC
    Agris Helmet. Discovered in Agris, Charente, France, 350 BC
  • A 24 karat Celtic "torc", discovered in the grave of the "Lady of Vix", Burgundy, France, 480 BC
    A 24 karat Celtic "
    Burgundy
    , France, 480 BC
  • A belt made of 2.8 kilograms (6.2 lb) of pure gold, discovered in Guînes, France, 1200–1000 BC
    A belt made of 2.8 kilograms (6.2 lb) of pure gold, discovered in Guînes, France, 1200–1000 BC
  • Celtic gold bracelet found in Cantal, France
    Celtic gold bracelet found in Cantal, France
  • Celtic helmet decorated with gold "triskeles", found in Amfreville-sous-les-Monts, France, 400 BC
    Celtic helmet decorated with gold "
    triskeles", found in Amfreville-sous-les-Monts
    , France, 400 BC
  • Celtic war trumpet named "carnyx" found in the Gallic sanctuary of Tintignac, Corrèze, France.
    Celtic war trumpet named "carnyx" found in the Gallic sanctuary of Tintignac, Corrèze, France.
  • Celtic bronze helmet in the shape of swan found in Tintignac, Corrèze, France.
    Celtic bronze helmet in the shape of swan found in Tintignac, Corrèze, France.
  • The Vix krater, discovered in the grave of the "Lady of Vix", in northern Burgundy, France, 500 BC
    The
    Burgundy
    , France, 500 BC
  • Gaul, Curiosolites coin showing stylized head and horse (c. 100–50 BC)
    Gaul,
    Curiosolites
    coin showing stylized head and horse (c. 100–50 BC)
  • Gaul, Armorica coin showing stylized head and horse (Jersey moon head style, c. 100–50 BC)
    Gaul, Armorica coin showing stylized head and horse (Jersey moon head style, c. 100–50 BC)

Social structure

Gaulish society was dominated by the druid priestly class.[citation needed] The druids were not the only political force, however, and the early political system was complex. The fundamental unit of Gallic politics was the tribe, which itself consisted of one or more of what Caesar called "pagi".[citation needed] Each tribe had a council of elders, and initially a king. Later, the executive was an annually-elected magistrate.[citation needed] Among the Aedui tribe the executive held the title of "Vergobret", a position much like a king, but its powers were held in check by rules laid down by the council.[citation needed]

The tribal groups, or pagi as the Romans called them (singular: pagus; the French word pays, "country", comes from this term) were organized into larger super-tribal groups that the Romans called

civitates. These administrative groupings would be taken over by the Romans in their system of local control, and these civitates would also be the basis of France's eventual division into ecclesiastical bishoprics and dioceses, which would remain in place—with slight changes—until the French Revolution imposed the modern departmental system
.

Though the tribes were moderately stable political entities, Gaul as a whole tended to be politically divided, there being virtually no unity among the various tribes.[citation needed] Only during particularly trying times, such as the invasion of Caesar, could the Gauls unite under a single leader like Vercingetorix. Even then, however, the faction lines were clear.[citation needed]

The Romans divided Gaul broadly into Provincia (the conquered area around the Mediterranean), and the northern

Vascons, the Belgae would thus probably be counted among the Gauls tribes, perhaps with Germanic elements.[citation needed
]

Julius Caesar, in his book, Commentarii de Bello Gallico, comments:

All Gaul is divided into three parts, one of which the Belgae inhabit, the Aquitani another, whereas those who in their own language are called Celts and in ours Gauls, the third.

All these differ from each other in language, customs and laws.

The river Garonne separates the Gauls from the Aquitani; the rivers Marne and Seine separate them from the Belgae.

Of all these, the Belgae are the bravest, because they are furthest from the civilisation and refinement of (our) Province, and merchants least frequently resort to them, and import those things which tend to effeminate the mind; and they are the nearest to the Germani, who dwell beyond the Rhine, with whom they are continually waging war; for which reason the Helvetii also surpass the rest of the Gauls in valour, as they contend with the Germani in almost daily battles, when they either repel them from their own territories, or themselves wage war on their frontiers. One part of these, which it has been said that the Gauls occupy, takes its beginning at the river Rhône; it is bounded by the river Garonne, the Atlantic Ocean, and the territories of the Belgae; it borders, too, on the side of the Sequani and the Helvetii, upon the river Rhine, and stretches toward the north.

The Belgae rises from the extreme frontier of Gaul, extend to the lower part of the river Rhine; and look toward the north and the rising sun.

Aquitania extends from the

Atlantic (Bay of Biscay) which is near Spain
: it looks between the setting of the sun, and the north star.

   — Julius Caesar, Commentarii de Bello Gallico, Book I, chapter 1

Language

Bronze cuirass, weighing 2.9 kg, Grenoble, end of 7th century – early 6th century BC

Gaulish or Gallic is the name given to the Celtic language spoken in

Continental Celtic
. Lepontic and Galatian are sometimes considered dialects of Gaulish.

The exact time of the final extinction of Gaulish is unknown, but it is estimated to be around or shortly after the middle of the 1st millennium.[23] Gaulish may have survived in some regions as the mid to late 6th century in France.[24] Despite considerable Romanization of the local material culture, the Gaulish language is held to have survived and had coexisted with spoken Latin during the centuries of Roman rule of Gaul.[24] Coexisting with Latin, Gaulish played a role in shaping the Vulgar Latin dialects that developed into French, with effects including loanwords and calques,[25][26] sound changes shaped by Gaulish influence,[27][28] as well as in conjugation and word order.[25][26][29] Recent work in computational simulation suggests that Gaulish played a role in gender shifts of words in Early French, whereby the gender would shift to match the gender of the corresponding Gaulish word with the same meaning.[30]

Religion

Celtic wheel and thunderbolt), Le Chatelet, Gourzon, Haute-Marne, France
.

Like other Celtic peoples, the Gauls had a polytheistic religion.[31] Evidence about their religion is gleaned from archaeology and Greco-Roman accounts.[32]

Some

Dīs Pater.[31] Some deities were seen as threefold,[34] like the Three Mothers.[35] According to Miranda Aldhouse-Green, the Celts were also animists, believing that every part of the natural world had a spirit.[32]

Greco-Roman writers say the Gauls believed in reincarnation. Diodorus says they believed souls were reincarnated after a certain number of years, probably after spending time in an afterlife, and noted they buried grave goods with the dead.[36]

Gallic religious ceremonies were overseen by priests known as druids, who also served as judges, teachers, and lore-keepers.[37] There is evidence that the Gauls sacrificed animals, almost always livestock. An example is the sanctuary at Gournay-sur-Aronde. It appears some were offered wholly to the gods (by burying or burning), while some were shared between gods and humans (part eaten and part offered).[38] There is also some evidence that the Gauls sacrificed humans, and some Greco-Roman sources claim the Gauls sacrificed criminals by burning them in a wicker man.[39]

The Romans said the Gauls held ceremonies in

votive offerings: treasured items deposited in water and wetlands, or in ritual shafts and wells, often in the same place over generations.[31]

Among the Romans and Greeks, the Gauls had a reputation as head hunters. There is archaeological evidence of a "head cult" among the Gallic Salyes, who embalmed and displayed severed heads, for example at Entremont.[40][41]

The Roman conquest gave rise to a

syncretic Gallo-Roman religion, with deities such as Lenus Mars, Apollo Grannus, and the pairing of Rosmerta with Mercury
.

List of Gaulish tribes

Map of Gaul c.59 BC, showing Gallic tribes in green, and the Roman Republic in yellow

The Gauls were made up of many tribes who controlled a particular territory and often built large fortified settlements called

civitates. The geographical subdivisions of the early church in Gaul were then based on these, and continued as French dioceses
until the French Revolution.

The following is a list of recorded Gaulish tribes, in both Latin and the reconstructed Gaulish language (*), as well as their capitals during the Roman period.

Statue of Ambiorix, prince of the Eburones, in Tongeren, Belgium
Tribe Capital
Aedui Bibracte (Mont Beuvray)
Allobroges Solonion (Salagnon); Vienna (Vienne)
Ambarri near junction of Rhône & Saône rivers
Ambiani Samarobriva (Amiens)
Andecavi (*Andecawī) Juliomagos Andecavorum (Angers)
Arecomici Nemausus (Nîmes)
Arverni (*Arwernī) Gergovia (La Roche-Blanche)
Atrebates Nemetocenna (Arras)
Aulerci Cenomani Vindunom (Le Mans)
Bodiocasses Augustodurum (Bayeux)
Boii Bononia (Bologna)
Bellovaci (*Bellowacī) Bratuspantion (Beauvais)
Bituriges Cubi Avaricum (Bourges)
Bituriges Vivisci Burdigala (Bordeaux)
Brannovices (*Brannowīcēs) Matiscon (Mâcon)
Brigantii Brigantion (Bregenz)
Cadurci Uxellodunum (Cahors)
Caleti
Caracotinum (Harfleur); Sandouville?; Lillebonne?
Carni Aquileia
Carnutes (*Carnūtī) Autricum (Chartres); Cenabum (Orléans)
Catalauni (*Catu-wellaunī) Durocatelaunos (Châlons-en-Champagne)
Caturiges Ebrodunom (Embrun)
Cavari (*Cawarī) Arausion (Orange)
Cenomani Brixia (Brescia)
Ceutrones Darantasia (Tarentaise/Moûtiers)
Coriosolites Corseul
Diablintes Noeodunom (Jublains)
Durocasses Durocassium (Dreux)
Eburones Atuatuca (Tongeren)
Eburovices (*Eburowīcēs)
Mediolanum Aulercorum (Évreux
)
Gabali Andreritum (Javols)
Graioceli Ocellum (Aussois)?
Helvetii (*Heluetī) Brenodurum? (Bern, Switzerland); Aventicum (Avenches)
Helvii (*Helwī) Alba Helviorum (Alba-la-Romaine)
Insubres Mediolanom (Milan)
Lemovices (*Lemowīcēs) Durotincum (Villejoubert); Augustoritum (Limoges)
Leuci (*Lewcī) Tullum (Toul)
Lexovii (*Lexsowī) Noviomagos (Lisieux)
Lingones Andematunnon (Langres)
Mediomatrici Divodurum (Metz)
Medulli Moriana?
Menapii Castellum Menapiorum (
Cassel
)
Morini Bononia (Boulogne-sur-Mer)
Namnetes Condevincum (Nantes)
Nantuates Tarnaiae (Massongex)
Nervii (*Nerwī) Bagacum (Bavay)
Nitiobroges Aginnon (Agen)
Osismii (*Ostimī) Vorgium (
Carhaix
)
Parisii Lutetia (Paris)
Petrocorii Vesunna (Périgueux)
Pictones Lemonum (Poitiers)
Rauraci )
Redones Condate (Rennes)
Remi Durocortorum (Reims)
Ruteni Segodunom (Rodez)
Salassi Aosta
Santoni Mediolanum Santonum (Saintes)
Seduni Sedunum (Sion, Switzerland)
Segusiavi (*Segusiawī) Forum Segusiavorum (Feurs)
Segusini Segusio (Susa)
Senoni
Agedincum (Sens)
Sequani Vesontion (Besançon)
Suessiones Noviodunum (Pommiers); Augusta Suessionum (Soissons)
Taurini Taurasia (Turin)
Tectosagii Tolosa (Toulouse)
Tigurini Eburdodunom? (
Yverdon
)
Treveri (*Trēwerī) Trier; Titelberg
Tricastini[42] Augusta Tricastinorum (Saint-Paul-Trois-Châteaux)
Turoni Ambatia (Amboise); Caesarodunum (Tours)
Velaunii (*Wellaunī) Brigantio (Briançonnet)?
Veliocasses (*Weliocassēs) Rotomagos (Rouen)
Vellavi
(*Wellawī)
Ruessium (Saint-Paulien); Anicium (Le Puy-en-Velay)
Venelli (*Wenellī) Crociatonum (Carentan)
Veneti (*Wenetī) Dariorium (Vannes)
Veragri (*Weragrī) Octodurus (Martigny)
Vertamocorii (*Wertamocorī) Novaria (Novara)
Viducasses (*Widucassēs) Aregenua (Vieux)
Vindelici (*Windelicī)
Augusta Vindelicorum (Augsburg
)
Viromandui (*Wiromanduī) Augusta Viromanduorum (Saint-Quentin, Aisne)
Vocontii (*Wocontī) Vaison-la-Romaine

Modern reception

Vercingétorix Memorial in Alesia, near the village of Alise-Sainte-Reine
, France.

The Gauls played a certain role in the national historiography and national identity of modern

kingdom the historical kingdom of France arose under the Capetian dynasty; for example, Charles de Gaulle is on record as stating, "For me, the history of France begins with Clovis, elected as king of France by the tribe of the Franks, who gave their name to France. Before Clovis, we have Gallo-Roman and Gaulish prehistory. The decisive element, for me, is that Clovis was the first king to have been baptized a Christian. My country is a Christian country and I reckon the history of France beginning with the accession of a Christian king who bore the name of the Franks."[43]

However, the dismissal of "Gaulish prehistory" as irrelevant for French national identity has been far from universal. Pre-Roman Gaul has been evoked as a template for French independence especially during the

Third French Republic (1870–1940). An iconic phrase summarizing this view is that of "our ancestors the Gauls" (nos ancêtres les Gaulois), associated with the history textbook for schools by Ernest Lavisse (1842–1922), who taught that "the Romans established themselves in small numbers; the Franks were not numerous either, Clovis having but a few thousand men with him. The basis of our population has thus remained Gaulish. The Gauls are our ancestors."[44]

French comic books following the exploits of a village of "indomitable Gauls", satirizes this view by combining scenes set in classical antiquity with modern ethnic clichés
of the French and other nations.

Similarly, in

Swiss national historiography of the 19th century, the Gaulish Helvetii were chosen as representing the ancestral Swiss population (compare Helvetia
as national allegory), as the Helvetii had settled in both the French and the German-speaking parts of Switzerland, and their Gaulish language set them apart from Latin- and German-speaking populations in equal measure.

Genetics

Roman copy of a Hellenistic sculpture of a Gallic warrior, Venice National Archaeological Museum.

A genetic study published in

Iberia was detected. The results of the study partially supported the belief that French people are largely descended from the Gauls.[45]

A genetic study published in the

patrilocal, which is in agreement with archaeological and literary evidence.[46]

A genetic study published in

iScience in April 2022 examined 49 genomes from 27 sites in Bronze Age and Iron Age France. The study found evidence of strong genetic continuity between the two periods, particularly in southern France. The samples from northern and southern France were highly homogenous, with northern samples displaying links to contemporary samples form Great Britain and Sweden, and southern samples displaying links to Celtiberians. The northern French samples were distinguished from the southern ones by elevated levels of steppe-related ancestry. R1b was by far the most dominant paternal lineage, while H was the most common maternal lineage. The Iron Age samples resembled those of modern-day populations of France, Great Britain and Spain. The evidence suggested that the Gauls of the La Téne culture largely evolved from local Bronze Age populations.[47]

See also

  • List of Celtic tribes

Notes

  1. ^ Retrieved 29 November 2012.
  2. ^ a b c d Blažek 2008, p. 38.
  3. ^ a b c d Matasović 2009, p. 150.
  4. ^ Gallia est omnis divisa in partes tres, quarum unam incolunt Belgae, aliam Aquitani, tertiam qui ipsorum lingua Celtae, nostra Galli appellantur. Julius Caesar, Commentarii de Bello Gallico, Book I, chapter 1
  5. ^ "Gaul definition and meaning | Collins English Dictionary".
  6. .
  7. ^ "Titus Livius (Livy), The History of Rome, Book 5, chapter 34". www.perseus.tufts.edu. Retrieved 2018-08-14.
  8. ^ .
  9. ^ Scholten, Joseph Bernard (1987). Aetolian Foreign Relations During the Era of Expansion, Ca. 300 -217 B.C. University of California, Berkeley. p. 104.
  10. . Late classical sources—if they are to be trusted—suggest that it survived at least into the 6th century AD.
  11. Encyclopædia Britannica
    . Retrieved April 6, 2015. Because of chronic internal rivalries, Gallic resistance was easily broken, though Vercingetorix's Great Rebellion of 52 bce had notable successes.
  12. Encyclopædia Britannica
    . Retrieved February 15, 2015. Indeed, the Gallic cavalry was probably superior to the Roman, horseman for horseman. Rome's military superiority lay in its mastery of strategy, tactics, discipline, and military engineering. In Gaul, Rome also had the advantage of being able to deal separately with dozens of relatively small, independent, and uncooperative states. Caesar conquered these piecemeal, and the concerted attempt made by a number of them in 52 bce to shake off the Roman yoke came too late.
  13. .
  14. . Retrieved December 15, 2017.
  15. ^ James Bromwich. "The Roman Remains of Northern and Eastern France: A Guidebook." Page 341. Citing "Bibliotheca Historica," 5.28, 1-3.
  16. ^ Gaius Petronius, "Satyricon", 1st century AD, page 208.
  17. ^ Megaw, 30
  18. ^ Megaw, 40
  19. ^ Megaw, 34-39; Sandars, 223-225; Laing, chapter 2
  20. ^ Wallace, 126
  21. ^ Sandars, 226–233; Laing, 34–35
  22. ^ "Gallic Wars" I.1.
  23. ^ Stifter, David (2012). "Old Celtic Languages (lecture notes)". University of Kopenhagen. p. 109.
  24. ^ . Le déclin du Gaulois et sa disparition ne s'expliquent pas seulement par des pratiques culturelles spécifiques: Lorsque les Romains conduits par César envahirent la Gaule, au 1er siecle avant J.-C., celle-ci romanisa de manière progressive et profonde. Pendant près de 500 ans, la fameuse période gallo-romaine, le gaulois et le latin parlé coexistèrent; au VIe siècle encore; le temoignage de Grégoire de Tours atteste la survivance de la langue gauloise.
  25. ^ a b Savignac, Jean-Paul (2004). Dictionnaire Français-Gaulois. Paris: La Différence. p. 26.
  26. ^ a b Matasovic, Ranko (2007). "Insular Celtic as a Language Area". Papers from the Workship within the Framework of the XIII International Congress of Celtic Studies: 106. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |agency= ignored (help)
  27. ^ Henri Guiter, "Sur le substrat gaulois dans la Romania", in Munus amicitae. Studia linguistica in honorem Witoldi Manczak septuagenarii, eds., Anna Bochnakowa & Stanislan Widlak, Krakow, 1995.
  28. ^ Eugeen Roegiest, Vers les sources des langues romanes: Un itinéraire linguistique à travers la Romania (Leuven, Belgium: Acco, 2006), 83.
  29. .
  30. .
  31. ^ a b c d e f Cunliffe, Barry (2018) [1997]. "Chapter 11: Religious systems". The Ancient Celts (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 275–277, 286, 291–296.
  32. ^ a b c Green, Miranda (2012). "Chapter 25: The Gods and the supernatural", The Celtic World. Routledge. pp.465–485
  33. ^ a b c d e Koch, John (2006). Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. pp. 1488–1491.
  34. , pp. 16, 24–46.
  35. ^ Inse Jones, Prudence, and Nigel Pennick. History of pagan Europe. London: Routledge, 1995. Print.
  36. ^ Koch (2006), p.850
  37. ^ Sjoestedt (1982) pp. xxvi–xix.
  38. ^ Green, Miranda (2002). Animals in Celtic Life and Myth. Routledge. pp. 94–96.
  39. .
  40. ^ Salma Ghezal, Elsa Ciesielski, Benjamin Girard, Aurélien Creuzieux, Peter Gosnell, Carole Mathe, Cathy Vieillescazes, Réjane Roure (2019), "Embalmed heads of the Celtic Iron Age in the south of France", Journal of Archaeological Science, Volume 101, pp.181-188, .
  41. ^ "The Gauls really did embalm the severed heads of enemies, research shows". The Guardian. 7 November 2018.
  42. ^ Bouillet, Marie-Nicolas; Chassang, Alexis (1878), Dictionnaire universel d'histoire et de géographie [Universal Dictionary of History and Geography] (printed monograph) (in French) (26th ed.), Paris: Hachette, p. 1905, retrieved July 16, 2013, Peuple de la Gaule Narbonnaise entre les Allobroges au N. et les Segalauni au S., avait pour capit. Augusta Tricastinorum (Aoust-en-Diois)
  43. ^ "Pour moi, l'histoire de France commence avec Clovis, choisi comme roi de France par la tribu des Francs, qui donnèrent leur nom à la France. Avant Clovis, nous avons la Préhistoire gallo-romaine et gauloise. L'élément décisif pour moi, c'est que Clovis fut le premier roi à être baptisé chrétien. Mon pays est un pays chrétien et je commence à compter l'histoire de France à partir de l'accession d'un roi chrétien qui porte le nom des Francs." Cited in the biography by David Schœnbrun, 1965.
  44. ^ Les Romains qui vinrent s'établir en Gaule étaient en petit nombre. Les Francs n'étaient pas nombreux non plus, Clovis n'en avait que quelques milliers avec lui. Le fond de notre population est donc resté gaulois. Les Gaulois sont nos ancêtres." (cours moyen, p. 26).
  45. ^
    PMID 30521562
    .
  46. ^ .
  47. .

Bibliography

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