Gauls
The Gauls (
The Gauls emerged around the 5th century BC as bearers of
After the end of the First Punic War, the rising Roman Republic increasingly put pressure on the Gallic sphere of influence. The Battle of Telamon (225 BC) heralded a gradual decline of Gallic power during the 2nd century BC. The Romans eventually conquered Gaul in the Gallic Wars (58–50 BC), making it a Roman province, which brought about the hybrid Gallo-Roman culture.
The Gauls were made up of many
Name
The
According to Caesar (mid-1st c. BC), the Gauls of the province of Gallia Celtica called themselves Celtae in their own language, and were called Galli in Latin.[4] Romans indeed used the ethnic name Galli as a synonym for Celtae.[2]
The English Gaul does not come from Latin Galli but from Germanic *
History
Origins and early history
Gaulish culture developed over the first millennium BC. The
By the 5th century BC, the tribes later called Gauls had migrated from Central
In the early 3rd century BC, the Gauls attempted an eastward expansion, toward the Balkan peninsula. At that time it was a Greek province, and the Gauls' intent was to reach and loot the rich Greek city-states of the Greek mainland. But the Greeks exterminated the majority of the Gallic army, and the few survivors were forced to flee.
Many Gauls were recorded as serving in the armies of Carthage during the Punic Wars. One of the leading rebel leaders of the Mercenary War, Autaritus, was of Gallic origin.
Balkan wars
During the Balkan expedition, led by Cerethrios, Brennos and Bolgios, the Gauls raided the Greek mainland twice.
At the end of the second expedition the Gallic raiders had been repelled by the coalition armies of the various
In the first Gallic invasion of Greece (279 BC), they defeated the Macedonians and killed the
In the second Gaulish invasion of Greece (278 BC), the Gauls, led by
Galatian war
In 278 BC Gaulish settlers in the Balkans were invited by
Galatians also participated at the victory at
Roman wars
In the
In 58 BC
Roman Gaul
After more than a century of
Physical appearance
4th-century Roman historian Ammianus Marcellinus wrote that the Gauls were tall, light-skinned, light-haired, and light-eyed:
Almost all Gauls are tall and fair-skinned, with reddish hair. Their savage eyes make them fearful objects; they are eager to quarrel and excessively truculent. When, in the course of a dispute, any of them calls in his wife, a creature with gleaming eyes much stronger than her husband, they are more than a match for a whole group of foreigners; especially when the woman, with swollen neck and gnashing teeth, swings her great white arms and begins to deliver a rain of punches mixed with kicks, like missiles launched by the twisted strings of a catapult.[14]
1st-century BC Greek historian Diodorus Siculus described them as tall, generally heavily built, very light-skinned, and light-haired, with long hair and mustaches:
The Gauls are tall of body, with rippling muscles, and white of skin, and their hair is blond, and not only naturally so, but they make it their practice to increase the distinguishing color by which nature has given it. For they are always washing their hair in limewater, and they pull it back from their forehead to the top of the head and back to the nape of the neck... Some of them shave their beards, but others let it grow a little; and the nobles shave their cheeks, but they let the mustache grow until it covers the mouth.[15]
Jordanes, in his Origins and Deeds of the Goths, indirectly describes the Gauls as light-haired and large-bodied by comparing them to Caledonians, as a contrast to the Spaniards, whom he compared to the Silures. He speculates based on this comparison that the Britons originated from different peoples, including Gauls and Spaniards.
The Silures have swarthy features and are usually born with curly black hair, but the inhabitants of Caledonia have reddish hair and large loose-jointed bodies. They [the Britons] are like the Gauls and the Spaniards, according as they are opposite either nation. Hence some have supposed that from these lands the island received its inhabitants.
In the novel Satyricon by Roman courtier Gaius Petronius, a Roman character sarcastically suggests that he and his partner "chalk our faces so that Gaul may claim us as her own" in the midst of a rant outlining the problems with his partner's plan of using blackface to impersonate Aethiopians. This suggests that Gauls were thought of on average to be much paler than Romans.[16]
Culture
All over Gaul, archeology has uncovered many pre-Roman gold mines (at least 200 in the Pyrenees), suggesting they were very rich, also evidenced by large finds of gold coins and artifacts. Also there existed highly developed population centers, called oppida by Caesar, such as Bibracte, Gergovia, Avaricum, Alesia, Bibrax, Manching and others. Modern archeology strongly suggests that the countries of Gaul were quite civilized and very wealthy. Most had contact with Roman merchants and some, particularly those that were governed by Republics such as the Aedui, Helvetii and others, had enjoyed stable political alliances with Rome. They imported Mediterranean wine on an industrial scale, evidenced by large finds of wine vessels in digs all over Gaul, the largest and most famous of which being the one discovered in Vix Grave, which stands 1.63 m (5′ 4″) high.
Art
Gallic art corresponds to two archaeological material cultures: the Hallstatt culture (c. 1200–450 BC) and the La Tène culture (c. 450–1 BC). Each of these eras has a characteristic style, and while there is much overlap between them, the two styles recognizably differ. From the late Hallstatt onwards and certainly through the entirety of La Tène, Gaulish art is reckoned to be the beginning of what is called Celtic art today.[17] After the end of the La Tène and from the beginning of Roman rule, Gaulish art evolved into Gallo-Roman art.
Hallstatt decoration is mostly geometric and linear, and is best seen on fine metalwork finds from graves. Animals, with
La Tène
-
A 24 karat Celtic "Burgundy, France, 480 BC
-
A belt made of 2.8 kilograms (6.2 lb) of pure gold, discovered in Guînes, France, 1200–1000 BC
-
Celtic gold bracelet found in Cantal, France
-
Celtic helmet decorated with gold "triskeles", found in Amfreville-sous-les-Monts, France, 400 BC
-
TheBurgundy, France, 500 BC
-
Gaul,Curiosolitescoin showing stylized head and horse (c. 100–50 BC)
-
Gaul, Armorica coin showing stylized head and horse (Jersey moon head style, c. 100–50 BC)
Social structure
Gaulish society was dominated by the druid priestly class.[citation needed] The druids were not the only political force, however, and the early political system was complex. The fundamental unit of Gallic politics was the tribe, which itself consisted of one or more of what Caesar called "pagi".[citation needed] Each tribe had a council of elders, and initially a king. Later, the executive was an annually-elected magistrate.[citation needed] Among the Aedui tribe the executive held the title of "Vergobret", a position much like a king, but its powers were held in check by rules laid down by the council.[citation needed]
The tribal groups, or pagi as the Romans called them (singular: pagus; the French word pays, "country", comes from this term) were organized into larger super-tribal groups that the Romans called
Though the tribes were moderately stable political entities, Gaul as a whole tended to be politically divided, there being virtually no unity among the various tribes.[citation needed] Only during particularly trying times, such as the invasion of Caesar, could the Gauls unite under a single leader like Vercingetorix. Even then, however, the faction lines were clear.[citation needed]
The Romans divided Gaul broadly into Provincia (the conquered area around the Mediterranean), and the northern
Julius Caesar, in his book, Commentarii de Bello Gallico, comments:
All Gaul is divided into three parts, one of which the Belgae inhabit, the Aquitani another, whereas those who in their own language are called Celts and in ours Gauls, the third.
All these differ from each other in language, customs and laws.
The river Garonne separates the Gauls from the Aquitani; the rivers Marne and Seine separate them from the Belgae.
Of all these, the Belgae are the bravest, because they are furthest from the civilisation and refinement of (our) Province, and merchants least frequently resort to them, and import those things which tend to effeminate the mind; and they are the nearest to the Germani, who dwell beyond the Rhine, with whom they are continually waging war; for which reason the Helvetii also surpass the rest of the Gauls in valour, as they contend with the Germani in almost daily battles, when they either repel them from their own territories, or themselves wage war on their frontiers. One part of these, which it has been said that the Gauls occupy, takes its beginning at the river Rhône; it is bounded by the river Garonne, the Atlantic Ocean, and the territories of the Belgae; it borders, too, on the side of the Sequani and the Helvetii, upon the river Rhine, and stretches toward the north.
The Belgae rises from the extreme frontier of Gaul, extend to the lower part of the river Rhine; and look toward the north and the rising sun.
Aquitania extends from the
Atlantic (Bay of Biscay) which is near Spain: it looks between the setting of the sun, and the north star.
— Julius Caesar, Commentarii de Bello Gallico, Book I, chapter 1
Language
Gaulish or Gallic is the name given to the Celtic language spoken in
The exact time of the final extinction of Gaulish is unknown, but it is estimated to be around or shortly after the middle of the 1st millennium.[23] Gaulish may have survived in some regions as the mid to late 6th century in France.[24] Despite considerable Romanization of the local material culture, the Gaulish language is held to have survived and had coexisted with spoken Latin during the centuries of Roman rule of Gaul.[24] Coexisting with Latin, Gaulish played a role in shaping the Vulgar Latin dialects that developed into French, with effects including loanwords and calques,[25][26] sound changes shaped by Gaulish influence,[27][28] as well as in conjugation and word order.[25][26][29] Recent work in computational simulation suggests that Gaulish played a role in gender shifts of words in Early French, whereby the gender would shift to match the gender of the corresponding Gaulish word with the same meaning.[30]
Religion
Like other Celtic peoples, the Gauls had a polytheistic religion.[31] Evidence about their religion is gleaned from archaeology and Greco-Roman accounts.[32]
Some
Greco-Roman writers say the Gauls believed in reincarnation. Diodorus says they believed souls were reincarnated after a certain number of years, probably after spending time in an afterlife, and noted they buried grave goods with the dead.[36]
Gallic religious ceremonies were overseen by priests known as druids, who also served as judges, teachers, and lore-keepers.[37] There is evidence that the Gauls sacrificed animals, almost always livestock. An example is the sanctuary at Gournay-sur-Aronde. It appears some were offered wholly to the gods (by burying or burning), while some were shared between gods and humans (part eaten and part offered).[38] There is also some evidence that the Gauls sacrificed humans, and some Greco-Roman sources claim the Gauls sacrificed criminals by burning them in a wicker man.[39]
The Romans said the Gauls held ceremonies in
Among the Romans and Greeks, the Gauls had a reputation as head hunters. There is archaeological evidence of a "head cult" among the Gallic Salyes, who embalmed and displayed severed heads, for example at Entremont.[40][41]
The Roman conquest gave rise to a
List of Gaulish tribes
The Gauls were made up of many tribes who controlled a particular territory and often built large fortified settlements called
The following is a list of recorded Gaulish tribes, in both Latin and the reconstructed Gaulish language (*), as well as their capitals during the Roman period.
Tribe | Capital |
---|---|
Aedui | Bibracte (Mont Beuvray) |
Allobroges | Solonion (Salagnon); Vienna (Vienne) |
Ambarri | near junction of Rhône & Saône rivers |
Ambiani | Samarobriva (Amiens) |
Andecavi (*Andecawī) | Juliomagos Andecavorum (Angers) |
Arecomici | Nemausus (Nîmes) |
Arverni (*Arwernī) | Gergovia (La Roche-Blanche) |
Atrebates | Nemetocenna (Arras) |
Aulerci Cenomani | Vindunom (Le Mans) |
Bodiocasses | Augustodurum (Bayeux) |
Boii | Bononia (Bologna) |
Bellovaci (*Bellowacī) | Bratuspantion (Beauvais) |
Bituriges Cubi | Avaricum (Bourges) |
Bituriges Vivisci | Burdigala (Bordeaux) |
Brannovices (*Brannowīcēs) | Matiscon (Mâcon) |
Brigantii | Brigantion (Bregenz) |
Cadurci | Uxellodunum (Cahors) |
Caleti
|
Caracotinum (Harfleur); Sandouville?; Lillebonne? |
Carni | Aquileia |
Carnutes (*Carnūtī) | Autricum (Chartres); Cenabum (Orléans) |
Catalauni (*Catu-wellaunī) | Durocatelaunos (Châlons-en-Champagne) |
Caturiges | Ebrodunom (Embrun) |
Cavari (*Cawarī) | Arausion (Orange) |
Cenomani | Brixia (Brescia) |
Ceutrones | Darantasia (Tarentaise/Moûtiers) |
Coriosolites | Corseul |
Diablintes | Noeodunom (Jublains) |
Durocasses | Durocassium (Dreux) |
Eburones | Atuatuca (Tongeren) |
Eburovices (*Eburowīcēs) | Mediolanum Aulercorum (Évreux )
|
Gabali | Andreritum (Javols) |
Graioceli | Ocellum (Aussois)? |
Helvetii (*Heluetī) | Brenodurum? (Bern, Switzerland); Aventicum (Avenches) |
Helvii (*Helwī) | Alba Helviorum (Alba-la-Romaine) |
Insubres | Mediolanom (Milan) |
Lemovices (*Lemowīcēs) | Durotincum (Villejoubert); Augustoritum (Limoges) |
Leuci (*Lewcī) | Tullum (Toul) |
Lexovii (*Lexsowī) | Noviomagos (Lisieux) |
Lingones | Andematunnon (Langres) |
Mediomatrici | Divodurum (Metz) |
Medulli | Moriana? |
Menapii | Castellum Menapiorum ( Cassel )
|
Morini | Bononia (Boulogne-sur-Mer) |
Namnetes | Condevincum (Nantes) |
Nantuates | Tarnaiae (Massongex) |
Nervii (*Nerwī) | Bagacum (Bavay) |
Nitiobroges | Aginnon (Agen) |
Osismii (*Ostimī) | Vorgium ( Carhaix )
|
Parisii | Lutetia (Paris) |
Petrocorii | Vesunna (Périgueux) |
Pictones | Lemonum (Poitiers) |
Rauraci | Basel oppidum; Augusta Raurica (Kaiseraugst )
|
Redones | Condate (Rennes) |
Remi | Durocortorum (Reims) |
Ruteni | Segodunom (Rodez) |
Salassi | Aosta |
Santoni | Mediolanum Santonum (Saintes) |
Seduni | Sedunum (Sion, Switzerland) |
Segusiavi (*Segusiawī) | Forum Segusiavorum (Feurs) |
Segusini | Segusio (Susa) |
Senoni
|
Agedincum (Sens) |
Sequani | Vesontion (Besançon) |
Suessiones | Noviodunum (Pommiers); Augusta Suessionum (Soissons) |
Taurini | Taurasia (Turin) |
Tectosagii | Tolosa (Toulouse) |
Tigurini | Eburdodunom? ( Yverdon )
|
Treveri (*Trēwerī) | Trier; Titelberg |
Tricastini[42] | Augusta Tricastinorum (Saint-Paul-Trois-Châteaux) |
Turoni | Ambatia (Amboise); Caesarodunum (Tours) |
Velaunii (*Wellaunī) | Brigantio (Briançonnet)? |
Veliocasses (*Weliocassēs) | Rotomagos (Rouen) |
Vellavi (*Wellawī)
|
Ruessium (Saint-Paulien); Anicium (Le Puy-en-Velay) |
Venelli (*Wenellī) | Crociatonum (Carentan) |
Veneti (*Wenetī) | Dariorium (Vannes) |
Veragri (*Weragrī) | Octodurus (Martigny) |
Vertamocorii (*Wertamocorī) | Novaria (Novara) |
Viducasses (*Widucassēs) | Aregenua (Vieux) |
Vindelici (*Windelicī) | Augusta Vindelicorum (Augsburg )
|
Viromandui (*Wiromanduī) | Augusta Viromanduorum (Saint-Quentin, Aisne) |
Vocontii (*Wocontī) | Vaison-la-Romaine |
Modern reception
The Gauls played a certain role in the national historiography and national identity of modern
However, the dismissal of "Gaulish prehistory" as irrelevant for French national identity has been far from universal. Pre-Roman Gaul has been evoked as a template for French independence especially during the
Similarly, in
Genetics
A genetic study published in
A genetic study published in the
A genetic study published in
See also
- List of Celtic tribes
Notes
- ^ Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.Retrieved 29 November 2012.
- ^ a b c d Blažek 2008, p. 38.
- ^ a b c d Matasović 2009, p. 150.
- ^ Gallia est omnis divisa in partes tres, quarum unam incolunt Belgae, aliam Aquitani, tertiam qui ipsorum lingua Celtae, nostra Galli appellantur. Julius Caesar, Commentarii de Bello Gallico, Book I, chapter 1
- ^ "Gaul definition and meaning | Collins English Dictionary".
- ISBN 9782600013376.
- ^ "Titus Livius (Livy), The History of Rome, Book 5, chapter 34". www.perseus.tufts.edu. Retrieved 2018-08-14.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-4165-3205-7.
- ^ Scholten, Joseph Bernard (1987). Aetolian Foreign Relations During the Era of Expansion, Ca. 300 -217 B.C. University of California, Berkeley. p. 104.
- ISBN 978-1-85109-440-0.
Late classical sources—if they are to be trusted—suggest that it survived at least into the 6th century AD.
- Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved April 6, 2015.
Because of chronic internal rivalries, Gallic resistance was easily broken, though Vercingetorix's Great Rebellion of 52 bce had notable successes.
- Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved February 15, 2015.
Indeed, the Gallic cavalry was probably superior to the Roman, horseman for horseman. Rome's military superiority lay in its mastery of strategy, tactics, discipline, and military engineering. In Gaul, Rome also had the advantage of being able to deal separately with dozens of relatively small, independent, and uncooperative states. Caesar conquered these piecemeal, and the concerted attempt made by a number of them in 52 bce to shake off the Roman yoke came too late.
- ISBN 978-1-4165-3205-7.
- ISBN 9780141921501. Retrieved December 15, 2017.
- ^ James Bromwich. "The Roman Remains of Northern and Eastern France: A Guidebook." Page 341. Citing "Bibliotheca Historica," 5.28, 1-3.
- ^ Gaius Petronius, "Satyricon", 1st century AD, page 208.
- ^ Megaw, 30
- ^ Megaw, 40
- ^ Megaw, 34-39; Sandars, 223-225; Laing, chapter 2
- ^ Wallace, 126
- ^ Sandars, 226–233; Laing, 34–35
- ^ "Gallic Wars" I.1.
- ^ Stifter, David (2012). "Old Celtic Languages (lecture notes)". University of Kopenhagen. p. 109.
- ^ ISBN 978-2-7298-6470-5.
Le déclin du Gaulois et sa disparition ne s'expliquent pas seulement par des pratiques culturelles spécifiques: Lorsque les Romains conduits par César envahirent la Gaule, au 1er siecle avant J.-C., celle-ci romanisa de manière progressive et profonde. Pendant près de 500 ans, la fameuse période gallo-romaine, le gaulois et le latin parlé coexistèrent; au VIe siècle encore; le temoignage de Grégoire de Tours atteste la survivance de la langue gauloise.
- ^ a b Savignac, Jean-Paul (2004). Dictionnaire Français-Gaulois. Paris: La Différence. p. 26.
- ^ a b Matasovic, Ranko (2007). "Insular Celtic as a Language Area". Papers from the Workship within the Framework of the XIII International Congress of Celtic Studies: 106.
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ignored (help) - ^ Henri Guiter, "Sur le substrat gaulois dans la Romania", in Munus amicitae. Studia linguistica in honorem Witoldi Manczak septuagenarii, eds., Anna Bochnakowa & Stanislan Widlak, Krakow, 1995.
- ^ Eugeen Roegiest, Vers les sources des langues romanes: Un itinéraire linguistique à travers la Romania (Leuven, Belgium: Acco, 2006), 83.
- .
- S2CID 6797972.
- ^ a b c d e f Cunliffe, Barry (2018) [1997]. "Chapter 11: Religious systems". The Ancient Celts (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 275–277, 286, 291–296.
- ^ a b c Green, Miranda (2012). "Chapter 25: The Gods and the supernatural", The Celtic World. Routledge. pp.465–485
- ^ a b c d e Koch, John (2006). Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. pp. 1488–1491.
- ISBN 0-913666-52-1, pp. 16, 24–46.
- ^ Inse Jones, Prudence, and Nigel Pennick. History of pagan Europe. London: Routledge, 1995. Print.
- ^ Koch (2006), p.850
- ^ Sjoestedt (1982) pp. xxvi–xix.
- ^ Green, Miranda (2002). Animals in Celtic Life and Myth. Routledge. pp. 94–96.
- ISBN 978-1598849646.
- ^ Salma Ghezal, Elsa Ciesielski, Benjamin Girard, Aurélien Creuzieux, Peter Gosnell, Carole Mathe, Cathy Vieillescazes, Réjane Roure (2019), "Embalmed heads of the Celtic Iron Age in the south of France", Journal of Archaeological Science, Volume 101, pp.181-188, .
- ^ "The Gauls really did embalm the severed heads of enemies, research shows". The Guardian. 7 November 2018.
- ^ Bouillet, Marie-Nicolas; Chassang, Alexis (1878), Dictionnaire universel d'histoire et de géographie [Universal Dictionary of History and Geography] (printed monograph) (in French) (26th ed.), Paris: Hachette, p. 1905, retrieved July 16, 2013,
Peuple de la Gaule Narbonnaise entre les Allobroges au N. et les Segalauni au S., avait pour capit. Augusta Tricastinorum (Aoust-en-Diois)
- ^ "Pour moi, l'histoire de France commence avec Clovis, choisi comme roi de France par la tribu des Francs, qui donnèrent leur nom à la France. Avant Clovis, nous avons la Préhistoire gallo-romaine et gauloise. L'élément décisif pour moi, c'est que Clovis fut le premier roi à être baptisé chrétien. Mon pays est un pays chrétien et je commence à compter l'histoire de France à partir de l'accession d'un roi chrétien qui porte le nom des Francs." Cited in the biography by David Schœnbrun, 1965.
- ^ Les Romains qui vinrent s'établir en Gaule étaient en petit nombre. Les Francs n'étaient pas nombreux non plus, Clovis n'en avait que quelques milliers avec lui. Le fond de notre population est donc resté gaulois. Les Gaulois sont nos ancêtres." (cours moyen, p. 26).
- ^ PMID 30521562.
- ^ .
- PMID 35402880.
Bibliography
- ISSN 0231-7710.
- Brunaux, Jean-Louis (2005). Les Gaulois. Les Belles Lettres. ISBN 978-2-251-41028-9.
- ISBN 978-0-19-875292-9.
- ISBN 9782877723695.
- Derks, Ton (1998). Gods, Temples, and Ritual Practices: The Transformation of Religious Ideas and Values in Roman Gaul. Amsterdam University Press. ISBN 978-90-5356-254-3.
- ISBN 978-1-317-75074-1.
- Fichtl, Stephan (2004). Les peuples gaulois: IIIe-Ier siècles av. J.-C. Errance. ISBN 978-2-87772-290-2.
- ISBN 978-1-135-63243-4.
- ISBN 978-1-59884-964-6.
- ISBN 978-2-87772-089-2.
- Laing, Lloyd and Jenifer. Art of the Celts, Thames and Hudson, London 1992 ISBN 0-500-20256-7
- ISBN 9789004173361.
- ISBN 0-500-28265-X
- Sandars, Nancy K., Prehistoric Art in Europe, Penguin (Pelican, now Yale, History of Art), 1968 (nb 1st edn.)
- Williams, J. H. C. (2001). Beyond the Rubicon: Romans and Gauls in Republican Italy. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-815300-9.
- Wallace, Patrick F., O'Floinn, Raghnall eds. Treasures of the National Museum of Ireland: Irish Antiquities ISBN 0-7171-2829-6
Further reading
- Barlow, Jonathan (1998). Julius Caesar as Artful Reporter: The War Commentaries as Political Instruments. Duckworth. ISBN 978-0-7156-2859-1.
- OCLC 3279201.
- OCLC 876050141.
- Brunaux, Jean-Louis; Lambot, Bernard (1987). Guerre et armement chez les Gaulois: 450-52 av. J.-C. Errance. ISBN 978-2-903442-62-0.
- Brunaux, Jean-Louis (1996). Les religions gauloises: rituels celtiques de la Gaule indépendante. Errance. ISBN 978-2-87772-128-8.
- Brunaux, Jean-Louis (2004). Guerre et religion en Gaule: essai d'anthropologie celtique. Errance. ISBN 978-2-87772-259-9.
- ISBN 978-2728300488.
- Chilver, G. E. F. (1941). Cisalpine Gaul: Social and Economic History from 49 B.C. to the Death of Trajan. Clarendon Press. OCLC 1120882705.
- OCLC 609773108.
- ISBN 978-0-521-52933-4.
- Ebel, Charles (1976). Transalpine Gaul: The Emergence of a Roman Province. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-04384-8.
- OCLC 468437906.
- Hatt, Jean-Jacques (1966). Histoire de la Gaule romaine (120 avant J.-C.-451 aprés J.-C.), colonisation ou colonialisme?. Payot.
- OCLC 463155800.
- King, Anthony (1990). Roman Gaul and Germany. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-06989-3.
- ISBN 2-221-05690-6.
- Mathisen, Ralph W. (1993). Roman Aristocrats in Barbarian Gaul: Strategies for Survival in an Age of Transition. University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-292-75806-3.
- Mullen, Alex (2013). Southern Gaul and the Mediterranean: Multilingualism and Multiple Identities in the Iron Age and Roman Periods. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-34165-4.
- ISBN 978-0-7134-5860-2.
- Thévenot, Emile (1987). Histoire des Gaulois. Presses Universitaires de France. ISBN 978-2-13-067863-2.
- Van Dam, Raymond (1992). Leadership and Community in Late Antique Gaul. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-07895-6.
- ISBN 978-0-674-20280-1.
- ISBN 978-0-520-05297-0.
- ISBN 978-0-521-41445-6.
External links
- Acy-Romance, the Gauls of Ardennes Archived 2014-05-21 at the Wayback Machine
- Lattes, Languedoc and the Southern Gauls Archived 2016-01-31 at the Wayback Machine
- The Gauls in Provence: the Oppidum of Entremont Archived 2016-04-02 at the Wayback Machine