Gay men

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gay pride parade
Two interlocked Mars symbols representing male homosexuality.

Gay men are male

uranians
.

Gay men continue to face significant discrimination in large parts of the world, particularly in most of Asia and Africa. In the United States, many gay men still experience discrimination in their daily lives,[1] though some openly gay men have reached national success and prominence, including Apple CEO Tim Cook and heads of state or government such as Xavier Bettel (Luxembourg), Edgars Rinkēvičs (Latvia), and Leo Varadkar (Ireland).

The word gay is recommended by LGBT groups and style guides to describe all people exclusively attracted to members of the same sex,[2] while lesbian refers specifically to female homosexuals, and gay men to male homosexuals.[3]

Male homosexuality in world history

Some scholars argue that the terms "homosexual" and "gay" are problematic when applied to men in ancient cultures since, for example, neither Greeks or Romans possessed any one word covering the same semantic range as the modern concept of "homosexuality".[4][5] Furthermore, there were diverse sexual practices that varied in acceptance depending on time and place.[4] Other scholars argue that there are significant similarities between ancient and modern male homosexuals.[6][7]

In cultures influenced by

construction of sexuality foreign to their times,[12] though other scholars challenge this.[13][7][6]

Africa

Khnumhotep and Niankhkhnum nose-kissing

The first record of a possible homosexual male couple in history is commonly regarded as

Fetha Nagast. Written in Ge'ez language, Ibn al-'Assal referred his laws from apostolic writer and former laws of Byzantine Empire. Fetha Nagast was written in two parts: the first dealt with the Church hierarchy sacraments and connected to religious rites. The second concerned laity, civil administration such as family laws.[16] In 1960, when the government enacted the civil code of Ethiopia, it cited the Fetha Nagast as an inspiration to the codification commission.[17] More recently, the European colonization of Africa resulted in the introduction of anti-sodomy laws, and is generally regarded as the central reason why African nations have such stringent laws against gay men today.[18] Three countries or jurisdictions have imposed the death penalty for gay men in Africa. These include Mauritania and several regions in Nigeria and Jubaland.[19][20][21]

Americas

Pre-Columbian ceramic of two men engaging in oral sex

As is true of many other non-Western cultures, it is difficult to determine the extent to which Western notions of sexual orientation apply to Pre-Columbian cultures. Evidence of homoerotic sexual acts between men has been found in many pre-

male prostitutes.[25]

The Spanish conquistadors expressed horror at discovering sodomy openly practiced among native men and used it as evidence of their supposed inferiority.[26] The conquistadors talked extensively of sodomy among the natives to depict them as savages and hence justify their conquest and forced conversion to Christianity. As a result of the growing influence and power of the conquistadors, many Native leaders started condemning homosexual acts themselves. During the period following European colonization, homosexuality was prosecuted by the Inquisition, sometimes leading to death sentences on the charges of sodomy, and the practices became clandestine. Many homosexual men went into heterosexual marriages to keep appearances, and some turned to the clergy to escape public scrutiny.[27]

During the

Isabella the Catholic in 1497. The sentences were carried out together on one day, 6 November 1658. The records of these trials and those that occurred in 1660, 1673 and 1687, suggest that Mexico City, like many other large cities at the time had an active underworld.[27][28]

East Asia

Two young men about to have relations. Qing China, date unknown.

In

Qing Dynasty and the Republic of China.[32]

Europe

Classical period

The Death of Hyacinthos by Jean Broc (1801)

The earliest Western documents (in the form of literary works, art objects, and mythographic materials) concerning same-sex male relationships are derived from ancient Greece. These relationships were constrained between "normal" men and their young male lovers. Relationships between adult men, however, were still largely considered taboo in Ancient Greek culture. Given the importance in Greek society of cultivating the masculinity of the adult male and the perceived feminizing effect of being the passive partner, relations between adult men of comparable social status were considered highly problematic, and usually associated with social stigma.[33]

This stigma, however, was reserved for only the passive partner in the relationship. According to contemporary opinion, Greek men who took on a passive sexual role after reaching adulthood – at which point they were expected to take the reverse role in pederastic relationships and become the active and dominant member – thereby were feminized or "made a woman" of themselves. There is ample evidence in the theater of Aristophanes that derides these passive men and gives a glimpse of the type of biting social opprobrium and shame ("atimia") heaped upon them by their society.[34]

Some scholars argue that there are examples of male homosexual love in ancient literature, such as

Hellenophile emperor Hadrian is renowned for his relationship with Antinous, but the Christian emperor Theodosius I decreed a law on 6 August 390, condemning passive males to be burned at the stake.[36][37]

Renaissance

Claude Marie Dubufe
, 1821

During the

Officers of the Night
court, were prosecuting, fining, and imprisoning a good portion of that population.

From the second half of the 13th century, death was the punishment for male homosexuality in most of Europe.[40] The relationships of socially prominent figures, such as King James I and the Duke of Buckingham, served to highlight the issue,[41] including in anonymously authored street pamphlets: "The world is chang'd I know not how, For men Kiss Men, not Women now; ... Of J. the First and Buckingham: He, true it is, his Wives Embraces fled, To slabber his lov'd Ganimede" (Mundus Foppensis, or The Fop Display'd, 1691).

Middle East

homosexual sex between young men (see: Gender and sexual minorities in the Ottoman Empire
)

In ancient

East Semitic equivalent), who dressed in female clothing and performed war dances in Ishtar's temples.[43] Several Akkadian proverbs seem to suggest that they may have also engaged in homosexual intercourse.[43] In ancient Assyria, male homosexuality was present and common; it was also not prohibited, condemned, nor looked upon as immoral or disordered. Some religious texts contain prayers for divine blessings on homosexual relationships.[44][45] The Almanac of Incantations contained prayers favoring on an equal basis the love of a man for a woman, of a woman for a man, and of a man for man.[46]

Gay men in modern Western history

The use of gay to mean a "homosexual" man was first used as an extension of its application to prostitution: a gay boy was a young man or adolescent serving male clients.

sexual mores. In court in 1889, the prostitute John Saul stated: "I occasionally do odd-jobs for different gay people."[48]

Bringing Up Baby (1938) was the first film to use the word gay in an apparent reference to homosexuality. In a scene in which Cary Grant's character's clothes have been sent to the cleaners, he is forced to wear a woman's feather-trimmed robe. When another character asks about his robe, he responds, "Because I just went gay all of a sudden!" Since this was a mainstream film at a time, when the use of the word to refer to cross-dressing (and, by extension, homosexuality) would still be unfamiliar to most film-goers, the line can also be interpreted to mean, "I just decided to do something frivolous."[49]

In 1950, the earliest reference found to date for the word gay as a self-described name for male homosexuals came from Alfred A. Gross, executive secretary for the George W. Henry Foundation, who said in the June 1950 issue of Sir magazine: "I have yet to meet a happy homosexual. They have a way of describing themselves as gay but the term is a misnomer. Those who are habitues of the bars frequented by others of the kind, are about the saddest people I've ever seen."[50]

Gay men in the Holocaust

Holocaust
.

Gay men were one of the primary victims of the Nazi

Holocaust. Historically, the earliest legal step towards the Nazi persecution of male homosexuality was 1871's Paragraph 175, a law passed after the unification of the German Empire. Paragraph 175 read: "An unnatural sex act committed between persons of male sex ... is punishable by imprisonment; the loss of civil rights might also be imposed." The law was interpreted differently in Germany until 23 April 1880, when the Reichsgericht ruled that criminal homosexual acts involved either anal, oral, or intercrural sex between two men. Anything less (such as kissing and cuddling) were deemed harmless play.[51]

Franz Gürtner, the Reich Justice Minister amended Paragraph 175 to address "loopholes" in the law after the Night of the Long Knives. The 1935 version of Paragraph 175 declared "expressions" of homosexuality as prosecutable crimes. The most important change to the law was the definitional shift of male homosexuality from "An unnatural sex act committed between persons of male sex" to instead "A male who commits a sex offense with another male." This expanded the reach of the law to persecute gay men as a people group, rather than male homosexuality as a sexual act. Kissing, mutual masturbation and love-letters between men were now seen as legitimate reasons for the police to make arrests. The law never defined a "sex offence", leaving it to interpretation.[52]

Between 1933 and 1945, an estimated 100,000 men were arrested as homosexuals under the Nazi regime, of whom some 50,000 were officially sentenced. Most of these men served time in prison, while an estimated 5,000 to 15,000 were incarcerated in

better source needed
]

AIDS crisis in the United States

ACT UP was founded by Larry Kramer to fight for medical funding and research on the HIV/AIDS crisis.

The

Gay Men's Health Crisis to provide food and support to gay men dying in New York City. During the early years of the AIDS crisis, gay men were treated pitilessly in hospital quarantine wards, left alone without contact for weeks at a time.[60]

1990 ACT UP radical direct action protesting the Bush Administration's slow pace of federal research for AIDS

During the early years of the epidemic, there was significant misinformation surrounding the illness. Rumors swirled that being in the same room or being touched by a gay man could lead one to contract HIV. It was not until April 1984 that the U.S. Health and Human Services Secretary

trans women, and bisexual men faced the brunt of deaths during the first decade of the crisis. Activists claimed the government was responding to the epidemic with apathy because of the perceived "social undesirability" of these groups. To address this perceived apathy, activists such as Vito Russo, Larry Kramer, and others,[64] took more militant approaches to AIDS activism, organizing direct action through organizations like ACT UP in order to force pharmaceutical corporations and government agencies to respond to the epidemic with more urgency. ACT UP eventually grew into a transnational organization, with 140 chapters around the world,[65] while the AIDS crisis ultimately became a global epidemic. By 2019, complications related to AIDS had taken 32.7 million lives worldwide.[66]

Legal status of gay men in modern society

Africa

came out
in 2014 in response to a wave of anti-gay laws in Africa

There are 54 nations in Africa recognized by the

death penalty for gay men.[73] The bill was ruled unconstitutional by the Ugandan Supreme Court in 2014, but retains support in the country and has been reconsidered for implementation.[74][75] Of all countries in Sub-Saharan Africa, South Africa has the most liberal attitudes toward gay men. In 2006, South Africa became the fifth country in the world to legalize same-sex marriage, and the Constitution of South Africa guarantees gay men and lesbians full equal rights and protections. South Africa is the only country in Africa where LGBT discrimination is constitutionally forbidden; however, social discrimination against South African gay men persists in rural parts of the country, where high levels of religious tradition continue to fuel prejudice and violence.[76]

Caribbean

Jamaican rapper Buju Banton has been criticized for violently homophobic messages in his music (see: Stop Murder Music).[77]

In the Americas (both North and South), male homosexuality is legal in every country (except Guyana). In the Caribbean, however, nine nations have criminal punishment for "buggery" on their statute books.[67] These countries include Barbados, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Dominica, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Grenada, Saint Lucia, Antigua and Barbuda, Guyana, and Jamaica. In Jamaica, sexual intercourse between men is legally punishable by imprisonment, though the law's repeal is pending. Sexual intercourse between women is already legal,[78] though lesbians in Jamaica still experience a high level of social stigma.[79]

In Jamaica, reports of vigilante violence and torture against gay men have been reported by the

J-Flag showed that 88 percent of those polled disapprove of homosexuality,[82] though since 2018, discriminatory attitudes have decreased slightly.[83]

In the Caribbean, like in other developing countries around the world, homosexual identity is often associated with Westernization,[84] and as a result, homophobia is believed to be an anti-colonial tool. Wayne Marshall wrote that gay men are believed to be "decadent products of the West" and "are thus to be resisted alongside other forms of colonization, cultural or political".[85] Wayne cites the example of the Jamaican dancehall hit "Dem Bow" by Shabba Ranks, which calls for the violent murder of gay men alongside a call for the "freedom for Black people". Marshall notes the irony of this ideological position, considering the historical evidence that homophobia was introduced to colonies by European colonists.[86] Nevertheless, Caribbean scholars have noted the importance of opposition to gay men for Jamaican male gender construction. Kingsley Ragashanti Stewart, a professor of anthropology at the University of the West Indies, writes, "A lot of Jamaican men, if you call them a homosexual, ... will immediately get violent. It's the worst insult you could give to a Jamaican man."[87] Stewart writes that homophobia influences Caribbean society even at the micro level of language. He writes of urban youth vernacular, "It's like if you say, 'Come back here,' they will say, 'No, no, no don't say "come back".' You have to say 'come forward,' because come back is implying that you're 'coming in the back,' which is how gay men have sex."[87]

Eastern Europe

Activists enact a scene of Chechen mothers mourning their disappeared sons, draped in LGBT and Chechen flags

In Eastern Europe, there has been a steady erosion of rights for gay men over the course of the last decade. In the

concentration camps.[88][89] Independent media and human rights groups have reported that gay men are being sent to clandestine camps in Chechnya, described by one eyewitness as "closed prison, the existence of which no one officially knows".[89][90] Some gay men have attempted to flee the region, but have been detained by Russian police and sent back to Chechnya.[91] Reports have emerged of prison officials releasing accused gay men from the camps after securing assurances from their families that their families will kill them (at least one man was reported by a witness as having died after returning to his family).[90] These imprisoned men are kept in extremely cramped conditions, with 30 to 40 people detained in one room (two to three metres big), and few are afforded a trial. Witnesses have also reported that the gay men are regularly beaten (with polypropylene pipes below the waist), tortured with electricity, and spat in the face by prison guards.[90] In some cases the process of torture has resulted in the death of the person being tortured.[92][93] As of 2021, the situation in Chechnya continues to worsen for gay men.[94] In other countries in Eastern Europe, rights for gay men continue to deteriorate. Polish President Andrzej Duda has pledged to ban teaching about gay men in schools, forbid same-sex marriage and adoption, and establish "LGBT-free zones".[95]

A 2017 Pew Research Center poll found that the majority of Orthodox Christians in the Eastern European and former USSR states surveyed believe that homosexuality "should not be accepted by society"; 45% of Orthodox Christians in Greece and 31% in the United States answered the same way.[96]

Southwest Asia and North Africa

Abdellah Taïa has written about the abuse he suffered as a gay child in Morocco.[97]

In

Southwest Asia and North Africa, gay men face some of the harshest and most hostile laws anywhere in the world. Sex between men is explicitly outlawed in 10 of the 18 "Middle Eastern" countries and is punishable by death in six. According to scholars, recent popular turns toward Islamic fundamentalism has strongly influenced the extreme violence against gay men. While all same-sex activity is legal in Bahrain, Cyprus, the West Bank, Turkey, Lebanon, Israel, Jordan, and Iraq, male homosexuality is illegal and punishable by imprisonment in Syria, Oman, Qatar, Kuwait, and Egypt. Israel is the most progressive concerning LGBT rights and recognizing unregistered cohabitation; however, it has faced criticism from academics such as Sarah Schulman and Jason Ritchie for "pinkwashing."[98][99] And although same-sex marriage is not legal in the country, there is public support for recognizing and registering same-sex marriages performed in other countries.[100]

Male same-sex activity is also punishable by death in the

UAE, Saudi Arabia, Iran, and Qatar. In the Gaza Strip and Yemen, punishment for male homosexuality varies between death and imprisonment depending on the act committed. In 2018, a transnational survey conducted in the region by Pew Research Center found that 80% of people polled believed homosexuality was "morally unacceptable",[101] though others argue that the true number of people who support rights for gay men is unclear due to fear of backlash and punishment.[102]

Gay men's contemporary art and culture

High fashion

McQueen, Fall 2008

Since the early 20th century, gay men, both out and closeted, have worked as some of the world's most influential fashion designers and started some of the most important fashion houses.

The Advocate in July 1995.[111] Versace was murdered in 1997.[112]

A younger generation of gay men gained prominence in the fashion world during the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries.

marriage ceremony with his partner George Forsyth, a documentary filmmaker, on a yacht in Ibiza.[117] McQueen died by suicide in 2010, shortly after the death of his mother. In recent years, gay men have continued to produce some of the most influential fashion in the world, including by designers such as Jeremy Scott (b. 1975), Jason Wu (b. 1982), and Alexander Wang (b. 1983).[118][119][120]

Art

"Unfromme Wünsche" by Matthias Laurenz Gräff (top left), Keith Haring in East Harlem in 1986 (top right), American artist Andy Warhol in Moderna Museet, Stockholm (bottom left), and "Darya Zhukova" by Alexander Kargaltsev (bottom right).

In the 20th century, gay men were amongst the Western world's most influential and prolific artists, writers, and dancers. In the United States by mid-century, James Baldwin (b. 1924) was considered one of the best writers of his generation.[121] His work, including Giovanni's Room (1956) dealt openly with homosexuality and bisexuality at a time when sex between men was still illegal throughout much of the Western world.[122][123] Other major artists of Baldwin's generation, including Robert Rauschenberg (b. 1925) and Jasper Johns (b. 1930), were less open about their sexuality,[124] and even made fun of other young gay artists of their generation, such as Andy Warhol, for being too feminine.[125] In the world of New York dance, Alvin Ailey (b. 1931) fused theater, modern dance, ballet, and jazz with black vernacular, and his choreographic magnum opus Revelations is recognized as one of the most popular and most performed ballets in the world.[126][127][128] Ailey remained closeted for much of his life, and he passed from an AIDS related illness at the age of 58.[129] David Hockney (b. 1937), another major artist of the Silent Generation, was an important contributor to the pop art movement of the 1960s and is considered one of the most influential British artists of the 20th century.[130][131] He has been openly gay for much of his life.[132]

Many of the most influential gay and bisexual artists of the

New Queer Cinema.[134][135] Today, gay men such as Mark Bradford, Julio Salgado, and Kehinde Wiley are amongst the most influential artists of their generation.[136][137][138] Much of contemporary Western gay art today deals with themes of body, identity, and experience.[139]

Outside of the West, art containing themes of gay male sexuality is still considered subversive and taboo. In

Section 377A of the Penal Code until 2022,[140] art by gay men is considered countercultural. Gay men in Singapore historically have been depicted negatively in local mainstream media, and efforts to counter this discrimination from wider Singaporean society has been made difficult because of the risk of jail, bans, and censorship by the state.[140][141][142][143]

Film and media art

In the United States, Andy Warhol made underground films with queer themes and actors. His work had an international influence in queer film art.[144] The avant-garde director Rosa von Praunheim has made more than 100 films on queer topics since the late 1960s, some of them have been evaluated internationally. Some films are considered milestones in queer cinema. Von Praunheim is internationally recognized as an icon of queer cinema.[145] The director Rainer Werner Fassbinder had an early influence on queer cinema with films like Querelle (1982).[146] These filmmakers and others pioneered queer Hollywood productions like Brokeback Mountain (2005), which reached an audience of millions.[147]

Drag

Post-Modern Art Attack

Drag queens are a significant part of the popular culture of gay men and are regularly featured in

Rupaul
, to people who do drag only occasionally.

Drag balls themselves have a long history for gay men in the United States.[148] In 1869 at the Hamilton Lodge in Harlem, the first drag balls were held. These balls were held in secret, but news grew of their existence as a safe place for gay men to congregate.[148] The balls were deemed immoral and illegal, and a moral reform organization known as the Committee of Fourteen investigated alleged "immoral" activities.[148] In 1916, the committee released a report describing "'phenomenal ... male perverts' in expensive frocks and wigs, looking like women".[148] By the 1920s, the balls grew in public visibility. In New York, the events, once called Masquerade and Civic Balls, were called "Faggots Balls" by the general public.[148] The balls, however, also attracted some of the city's top artists and writers, including Charles Henri Ford and Parker Tyler.[148] The men, who co-authored The Young and Evil, described the drag ball as "a scene whose celestial flavor and cerulean coloring no angelic painter or nectarish poet has ever conceived ... lit up like high mass."[149] This flourishing of gay life in the 1920s and 30s was part of a period known as the Pansy Craze.[150]

More recently, the film

cult classic and has served as an organizing and academic tool for the gay and trans communities (though it has been subject to significant criticism).[151] Meanwhile, the television reality program RuPaul's Drag Race has been on-air in the United States since 2009 and has introduced the straight mainstream to gay men's popular culture through drag. The original American series has since developed into the global Drag Race franchise
.

In the 2020s, a wave of anti-LGBT backlash in the United States resulted in what is known as the

Tennessee, criminalized the public performance of drag.[153]

Camp

"Magenta carpet" at Life Ball 2013

Camp is a visual

Ryan Murphy said he believed camp was "a lazy catchall that gets thrown at gay artists in order to marginalize their ambitions, to frame their work as niche" and preferred to describe his visual aesthetic style as "baroque".[157] As some gay men have moved away from the term, however, mainstream straight society has appropriated it. In 2019, the New York Metropolitan Museum of Art hosted its annual event, the Met Gala, with the theme titled "Notes on Camp".[158] That same year, the museum presented its full exhibit "Camp: Notes on Fashion", in which it presented numerous "campy" women's dresses.[159] Nevertheless, in drag performances and at gay pride events, many gay men continue to embrace a camp aesthetic.[160]

Representations of gay men in Western media

effeminate
villain.

In many forms of popular entertainment, gay men are portrayed stereotypically as

Queer Eye, and Modern Family have promoted broader social acceptance of gay men as "normal people". Nevertheless, gay men are still frequently portrayed in the United States as symbols of social decadence by evangelists and organizations such as Focus on the Family.[162]

Historical Western media representations

Boys Beware, a 1961 U.S. propaganda film warning boys to beware the "predatory" dangers of homosexual men

Historically, many films have included negative sub-texts regarding male homosexuality, such as in Alfred Hitchcock's films, whose villains used implied homosexuality to heighten senses of evil and alienation.[163][164] In news programming, male homosexuality was rarely directly mentioned, but it was often portrayed as a sickness, perversion, or crime. In 1967, CBC released a news segment on homosexuality; however, the segment was simply a compilation of negative stereotypes of gay men.[165] The 1970s showed an increase in gay men's visibility in Western media with the 1972 ABC show That Certain Summer. The show was about a gay man raising a family, and although it did not show any explicit relations between the men, it contained no negative stereotypes.[165]

With the emergence of the

Bay Area, The San Francisco Chronicle hired an openly gay man as a reporter and ran detailed stories on gay male topics. This was a sharp contrast to The New York Times, which refused to use the word "gay" in its writing, exclusively referring to gay men and lesbians with the term "homosexuals", because it was believed to be a more clinical term. The Times also limited its verbal and visual coverage of issues pertaining to gay men.[165][167]

Contemporary Western media representations

AIDS
in New York.

In recent years, positive representations of gay men entered mainstream television programming, however, critiques also emerged about the lack of diverse representations of gay men onscreen. Alfred Martin writes, "Popular television shows including

colorblind, the show disregards his ethnic identity.[168]

Health

Abuse

Gay men are more likely to be abused but less likely to seek help.

From a very early age, sexual and gender minority identified men are at an increased risk of being physically and sexually abused.[169] Among boys of all sexual orientations, about one in six is sexually abused before they turn sixteen (however, the range of available estimates is far broader).[170] In the United States, it has been estimated that the number of gay men who were sexually abused or molested when they were children is about 20%.[171] Around the world, the sexual abuse of effeminate male children by heterosexual men continues to be a major concern.[172][173] Writing about his own experience as a feminine boy, the openly-gay Moroccan writer, Abdellah Taïa, wrote in a New York Times op-ed: "I knew what happened to boys like me in our impoverished society; they were designated victims, to be used, with everyone's blessing, as easy sexual objects by frustrated men."[97]

Over the course of their adult lives, gay and bisexual men are also at acute risk of experiencing physical and sexual trauma.

sexually transmitted infections, higher likelihood of sexual compulsivity, and increased risk of exposure to HIV.[174] Gay men who experience sexual abuse also display lower self-esteem, a distorted sense of self-worth, and difficulty forming healthy emotional relationships.[174] Gay men are less likely than women to seek mental health assistance after experiencing trauma, oftentimes due to social stigma and false beliefs around sexual assault, such as "men cannot be forced to have sex" and "men become gay or bisexual because they were sexually abused."[174]

Sexual health

HIV prevention poster advocating for safe MSM sex in Vietnam

Around the world, gay, bisexual, and other

Western and Central Africa.[176]

In countries with diverse racial populations, such as the United States, France, and the United Kingdom, new HIV infections among gay and bisexual men are found disproportionately in working-class and communities of color.

health disparities in these crises;[182][183] however, in the United States, as in other places around the world, these problems have only worsened as HIV-positive MSM (especially those from already disadvantaged communities)[184] have been severely and disproportionately affected by the global COVID-19 pandemic.[185]

In addition to HIV, young gay, bisexual, and other MSM are also at significantly higher risk for other

sexually transmitted infections via unsafe sex.[189] Furthermore, because depression is strongly linked to a history of being sexual abused, the high rate of past childhood sexual trauma among gay men leaves many in the community vulnerable to unhealthy behaviors and practices.[171][190] As a combination of these complex factors, many gay, bisexual, and MSM have higher rates of STIs, including chlamydia and gonorrhea, and in the United States, account for 83% of all primary and secondary syphilis cases.[191]

Mental health

There are significant issues affecting the overall

major depression and generalized anxiety disorder.[192] Gay and bisexual men are also at greater risk of dying by suicide;[193] they are one of the demographic groups most likely to have tried to commit suicide, as well as to actually die by suicide.[192] Finally, HIV-positive status continues to have a major impact on the mental health of many gay and bisexual men, who fear disclosing their status to employers, friends, and families, particularly if they have not yet come out.[192]

Incarceration

United States

Protest against mass incarceration in Chowchilla, California in January 2013

In 2017, a survey conducted by the

U.S. Department of Justice and the Williams Institute at the UCLA School of Law found that in local and county jails, 6.2 percent of all incarcerated men were sexual minorities, including 3.3 percent who identified as gay or bisexual, and 2.9 percent who did not identify as gay or bisexual but reported having had sex with men (MSM).[194] This number was higher amongst men within state and federal prisons, where 5.5 percent identified as gay or bisexual, and an additional 3.8 were MSM.[194] The Williams Institute's research team also found that gay and bisexual men received longer and harsher sentences for the same crimes committed compared to heterosexual men.[194] Gay and bisexual men were found to be 2.7 times more likely to receive prison terms exceeding 20 years than straight men, and were more likely to have spent time in solitary confinement while incarcerated: 26.8 of gay and bisexual men had been held in solitary compared to 18.2 of straight men.[194]

Additionally, gay men are at increased risk of

consensual.[195] As a result, rape victims who are known or believed to be gay are sometimes even denied medical treatment or legal recourse, and perpetrators often go unpunished and thus are allowed to continue abusing their victims.[195] According to the activist Andrea Cavanaugh Kern, high rates of sexual assault against prisoners, combined with high rates of HIV infections in prisons, means that incarceration can often be a "life-or-death" issue for gay and bisexual men.[196]

Homelessness

London advert protesting the exclusion of unhoused LGBT people

For many young gay men and LGBT+ youth around the world,

institutionalization.[199] Institutionalization can affect gay and bisexual youth's later outcomes in life and lead to long-term addiction, reliance on sex work for survival, and prolonged homelessness.[199] Amongst adults, no nationally representative datasets exist yet for measuring the sexual orientation or gender identity of homeless or housing insecure individuals;[202] however, some estimates place the LGBT community at between 20 and 40% of the United States' homeless populations.[203]

Community and identity

Subcultures

Two young gay men at Taiwan Pride

In North America and Europe, gay men have several subcultures, including

mobile apps such as Grindr have played in creating self-segregating subcultures (also called "tribes") within gay men's communities.[209] In the United States, young straight men have appropriated the aesthetics of young gay men and are even called "art twinks" by some.[210]

Youth

A youth at DC Pride

Gay adolescents, boys, and young men are a uniquely vulnerable segment of the gay male population. In many countries, identity-issues, bullying, and lack of family acceptance are some of the major concerns facing gay-identified youth.[211][212][213] Additionally, gay boys and adolescents around the world are regularly subjected to more extreme forms of violence, including conversion therapy,[214] familial violence,[215][216] and other forms of physical abuse.[217] These issues have been shown to have detrimental effects on the well-being of gay and bisexual male youth. In the United States, a 2019 report by the CDC found that suicidal ideation amongst gay and bisexual boys and adolescents is as high as 40.4%.[218] According to the CDC, however, parental support can play an important role in bettering health outcomes for gay and bisexual youth, decreasing the likelihood a gay teen will: "Experience depression; attempt suicide; use drugs and alcohol; [or] become infected with sexually transmitted diseases."[219] For educators, the inclusion of diverse curriculum and the development of peer support venues (such as Queer–Straight Alliances in North America) have been suggested as ways to reduce the frequency and effects of bullying and cyberbullying.[220] Such measures are particularly important for gay and bisexual male students, who, in 2019, were the second most likely group (behind trans students) to have experienced bullying at school (73.9%) and online (30%) in the most recent 30 days, according to research by Sameer Hinduja and Justin Patchin.[221] Despite these calls for inclusive and diverse curriculums, Scotland is currently the only country in the world with a mandated LGBTQ-inclusive curriculum in its public school system.[222] While many nations offer a piecemeal approach to LGBT education, others (including several U.S. states)[223] have explicit bans on the inclusion of gay-friendly education. Despite the challenges gay teenagers face, studies have found that gay male youth also develop skillsets which enable them to more successfully cope with stress and other developmental challenges than their straight peers.[224] In comparing gay boys and adolescents to their heterosexual peers, gay-identified youth show higher levels of resilience, positive self-esteem, and internal self-control.[224]

Fatherhood

Two fathers with their child

In the majority of countries today,

negative emotions than do straight fathers, and gay men show higher levels of warmth and cooperation toward their partners than do straight men.[232]

Age

Two older gay men in March 2010

Older gay men are one of the least studied groups within gay men's communities. In

AIDS epidemic.[233] In France, the documentary filmmaker Sébastien Lifshitz made Les Invisibles, a 2012 documentary about elderly gay French people, and he found significant ideological differences between younger and older gay people.[234] Lifshitz stated, "What's important to understand is that this older generation of gay people in France fought against the heterosexual, bourgeois model of French society with all their might. The fact that there are much younger gay couples today that are demanding the right to get married and adopt children is something the older gay generation understands, but does not want for themselves."[234] Finally, in the United States, scholars have found that most older gay American men are not "strange, lonely creatures" but are instead "well-adjusted to their homosexuality and the aging process".[235]

Gender identity

For

virtual dating applications) are producing rapidly changing sexual and romantic opportunities;[236] in fact, in 2017, most gay Canadian trans men reported having satisfying sexual lives.[236] In the United States, scholars report that trans men are often more likely to identify as bisexual than cisgender people.[237] They also note that gay and bisexual trans men in the U.S. report comparable levels of self esteem, sexual satisfaction, or psychological adjustment to their cisgender peers.[237] In a 2009 interview with New York magazine, the writer Amos Mac, who identifies as queer, said, "I very much [identify] as a fag. I [am] drawn to the community of gay men, and that's how I embody myself. I'm attracted to guys who have a bit of flair to them. They don't have to be gay, but they can be queeny. I love an artistic queen."[238] Mac also stated that living as an LGBT man allows him to express his femme side, since he no longer feels the necessity to force a masc posture in public.[238] In his 2017 book, Trans Homo, San Francisco State University professor Avi Ben-Zeev addresses the historical presence of trans gay men within the community, writing, "Elders, like Lou Sullivan, paved the way and have brought some visibility to the fact that trans men are, and have been, an integral part of gay male communities. Yet, we trans homos (and our lovers) are still mysterious creatures to many, even within these communities."[239] In a 2004 collection of personal essays, one man wrote about his identity formation as a gay trans man, writing "I [never felt] that being gay or [transgender] was unnatural. I've always felt that the people who never questioned their gender, sexuality, or fertility were the odd ones. If anyone needs an outsider's label, it's the ones who moralize against human sexuality, not the ones who accept it."[240]

Disability

A gay man in a wheelchair at London Pride 2016

Disabled gay men represent a significant but under-represented portion of the community. According to the

safe-sex practices. Meanwhile, within the field of Disability studies, scholars emphasize the importance of establishing a public identity and a common culture for gay men with disabilities.[242] In recent years, queer men with disabilities have achieved some mainstream media visibility, including through Ryan O'Connell's 2019 Netflix series Special, and the online popularity of the sexually fluid American model Nyle DiMarco
.

Education

In the United States, gay men are 50% more likely than straight men to have a university degree.[243]

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