Gender apartheid
Gender apartheid (also called sexual apartheid
Etymology
The term gender apartheid stems from
The concept of separateness in itself does not necessarily imply that any group is or will be favored over any other... The distinctive characteristic of apartheid and of other kinds of oppressive segregation is that political, economic, social, and even geographic conditions are created consciously and systematically in order to forcibly separate groups, invariably to the benefit—at least the short-term benefit—of at least one of the groups, but never, or only accidentally, to the benefit of all of them.[6]
It is important to note that gender apartheid is a universal phenomenon and therefore is not confined to South Africa. While reports of gender apartheid have most frequently arisen in the context of Islamic culture, it is prevalent around the world. Some human rights advocates have argued for sanctions against states practicing gender apartheid, similar to those imposed on South Africa under apartheid.[8][9]
In religion
Instances of gender apartheid have been found institutionalized through religious and cultural practices. For example, aspects of the treatment of women under
Catholicism
The terms gender apartheid and sexual apartheid have also been used to describe differential treatment of women in institutions such as the
The
Islam
The Islamic religion has been criticised for the discriminatory nature of its personal status laws and criminal code as applied to women.[19] Islam's patriarchal values remain one of its most contested principles, according to differing schools of thought. Generally, however, male and female rights differ considerably according to Islamic personal status laws.[20] For instance, Muslim men are permitted to engage in polygamy and marry Non-Muslim women while Muslim women are forbidden from having multiple husbands and marrying non-Muslim men,[21][22][23][24] and female inheritances are half of their male sibling's.[citation needed] Furthermore, conviction by Islamic criminal jurisprudence further discriminates against women, as it relies heavily on witness testimony. Female testimonies alone are considered insufficient to convict a murderer, requiring a male testimony for validation.[19]
The observance of sexual modesty and
Women's rights activist
Judaism
Haredi Judaism, also known as ultra-Orthodox Judaism, has been criticized for instituting gender apartheid policies and beliefs.[33][34] Comprising a small but steadily growing minority within the Jewish culture, Haredi Judaism is distinguished as a community of scholars, with a significantly larger proportion of men continuing their education in yeshiva than women in seminary.[35] Followers of Haredi Judaism are also distinct for their clothing and general appearance: unshaven beards, long dark overcoats, and wide-brimmed hats for men; and modestly covered women.[36] Accusations of gender apartheid point towards the culture's repressive nature and sex segregation, as well as the demonization of females as sexual temptation.[35] Additionally, public images of women have been defaced in Haredi communities, and young Jewish girls have been spat on and called prostitutes for wearing clothing deemed immodest.[37] Reports suggest that it is largely Haredi fundamentalists who are responsible for acts of gender apartheid, and that the Haredi community as a whole does not condone such practices.[38]
Actions of fundamentalist Haredi Jews in Israel have been referred to as gender apartheid.[33] While women customarily sit in the back of buses in parts of Israel, no formal edict enforces such. However, one incident arose in December 2011 in which a Haredi man asked a woman seated in the front of the bus to move towards the back; her subsequent refusal spurred a larger gathering. Police intervention ultimately broke apart the confrontation. Regarding the event, Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu expressed his support for public spaces for all and unity within the community.[39] There have also been reports of Haredi Jews spitting at women, attacking television crews, and protesting with signs instructing women how to dress and to avoid walking by synagogues.[40]
Buddhism
Certain Tibetan Buddhist schools[
Case studies
Many countries in the world exhibit acts of gender apartheid, though they are more commonly evidenced in the developing world. The following are nations that have purportedly practiced some instance of gender apartheid.
Afghanistan
In June 2023, U.N. Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in Afghanistan, Richard Bennett, told the
Iran
Malaysia
In 2006,
Pakistan
Pakistani society has been described as employing gender apartheid due to the subordinate status of women in political, economic, and social spheres. For instance, the Citizens Act of 1951 prevents Pakistani women with foreign husbands from obtaining for their spouses Pakistani citizenship.[47] The gender disparities in economic activity, education and literacy, and societal sex ratio have also been cited as evidence of systematic gender apartheid in Pakistan.[48]
Some studies suggest that gender roles in Pakistani society are transmitted via primary and secondary school textbooks, by neglecting to include important female figures in history and social studies.[49] Gender apartheid is therefore institutionalized through text and images in which women are appropriated to domestic roles and rarely portrayed working outside of the house. Moreover, in terms of personality and disposition, males and females are characterized as distinct opposites: while women are "vain, silly and stupid", men are "intelligent, brave and strong".[49] Consequently, socialized gender roles reinforce and perpetuate gender apartheid.
Efforts to stop discriminatory treatment of women have been made through policies such as the
Saudi Arabia
Marginalization of women in Saudi society has generated great pressure both domestically and internationally. Recent advancements have been seen in light of
Social interventions
Scholars and activists alike have criticized international law for its lack of initiative and public action in recognizing particular acts as gender apartheid and acting to prevent it.[59] According to these critics, cultural relativism has too often been a source of defense for gender apartheid, by safeguarding women's oppression from change and subversion. The rhetoric surrounding gender apartheid has also been viewed negatively as a form of neocolonialism that perpetuates stereotypes of Islam.[29][59] The United Nations' response to the Taliban's human rights violations against women in Afghanistan has in particular been the subject of much controversy. Some argue that the UN "not only failed to prevent and, later, to become an effective opponent of the gender policies of the Taliban regime, but that it actually incorporated discrimination against women in its humanitarian assistance and in the recruitment of local staff."[43]
In 1997, the Feminist Majority Foundation (FMF) launched the Campaign to Stop Gender Apartheid in Afghanistan, calling attention to the human rights abuses against women under the Taliban.[60] It has been criticized for promoting "imperial feminism" and for possessing an exploitative tone that denounces Islam as evil.[61] Following the fall of the Taliban regime, the campaign has since expanded and been renamed to become the Campaign for Afghan Women and Girls. It is chaired by Mavis Leno and aims to continue raising awareness of gender inequality in Afghanistan.[60]
The No Women, No Play campaign was launched in 2009 by the Hadi Al Mutif Program for Human Rights at the Institute for Gulf Affairs to address women's status in Saudi Arabia.[
In regards to gender apartheid in Roman Catholicism specifically, the Roman Catholic Womenpriests (RCWP) formed to defy the church position banning the ordination of women.[63] The group has since accrued further intention with the release of the 2011 documentary Pink Smoke over the Vatican.[64]
See also
- Apartheid (South African law)
- Athos, a Greek peninsula where women are not allowed
- Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women
- Female genital mutilation
- Femicide
- Gender equality
- Gender segregation
- Global Gender Gap Report
- Hegemonic masculinity
- Misogyny
- Okinoshima, a Japanese island where women are not allowed
- Separatist feminism
- Sex segregation
- Sexism
- Violence against women
- Women-only space
Notes
References
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- ^ a b c Löwstedt, Anthony (2014). Apartheid – Ancient, Past, and Present: Gross Racist Human Rights Violations in Graeco-Roman Egypt, South Africa, Israel/Palestine and Beyond, Vienna: Gesellschaft für Phänomenologie und kritische Anthropologie. Retrieved 10 March 2016.
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- ^ Jensen, Rita Henley. Taking the Gender Apartheid Tour in Saudi Arabia Archived 2005-03-15 at the Wayback Machine, Women's eNews, 03/07/2005.
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External links
- Against Sexual Apartheid in Iran Interview with Azar Majedi of Workers Communist Party of Iran