Genetic history of North Africa
The genetic history of North Africa encompasses the
North Africa is a genetically heterogenous and diverse region, and is characterized by its diverse ethnic groups, the main ones being
Current scientific debate is concerned with determining the relative contributions of different periods of gene flow to the current gene pool of North Africans.
After
In the 7th century A.D., the region was conquered by
A recent study from 2017 suggested that the Arab migrations to the Maghreb was mainly a demographic process that heavily implied gene flow and remodeled the genetic structure of the Maghreb, rather than a mere cultural replacement as claimed by older studies.[16] Another study found out that the majority of J-M267 (Eu10) chromosomes in the Maghreb are due to the recent gene flow caused by the Arab migrations to the Maghreb in the first millennium CE as both southern Qahtanite and northern Adnanite Arabs added to the heterogenous Maghrebi ethnic melting pot. The Eu10 chromosome pool in the Maghreb is derived not only from early Neolithic dispersions but to a much greater extent from recent expansions of Arab tribes from the Arabian Peninsula.[17]
Y-DNA of ancient North African samples
Name | Country | Culture | Date
(Before Present) |
Y-DNA Haplogroup
|
Genetic Profile | Study |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
TAF009 | Morocco | Iberomaurusian | 15,100-13,900 | E-M78
|
Afro-Levantine | Loosdrecht et al. 2018[18] |
TAF010 | Morocco | Iberomaurusian | 15,100-13,900 | E-M78
|
Afro-Levantine | Loosdrecht et al. 2018[18] |
TAF011 | Morocco | Iberomaurusian | 15,100-13,900 | E-M78
|
Afro-Levantine | Loosdrecht et al. 2018[18] |
TAF012 | Morocco | Iberomaurusian | 15,100-13,900 | E-M78
|
Afro-Levantine | Loosdrecht et al. 2018[18] |
TAF013 | Morocco | Iberomaurusian | 15,100-13,900 | E-M78
|
Afro-Levantine | Loosdrecht et al. 2018[18] |
TAF015 | Morocco | Iberomaurusian | 15,100-13,900 | E-M78
|
Afro-Levantine | Loosdrecht et al. 2018[18] |
KTG004 | Morocco | Cardial | 7,400-6,900 | G2 | European | Simoes et al. 2023[19] |
KTG006 | Morocco | Cardial | 7,400-6,900 | G2 | European | Simoes et al. 2023[19] |
IAM.4 | Morocco | Cardial | 7,300-6,700 | E-L19 | Levantine | Fregel et al. 2018[20] |
IAM.5 | Morocco | Cardial | 7,300-6,700 | E-L19 | Levantine | Fregel et al. 2018[20] |
SKH002 | Morocco | Proto-Beaker | 6,700-6,100 | T | Levantine | Simoes et al. 2023[19] |
SKH005 | Morocco | Proto-Beaker | 6,700-6,100 | T | Levantine | Simoes et al. 2023[19] |
KEB.6 | Morocco | Proto-Beaker | 5,700-5,600 | T | European | Fregel et al. 2018[20] |
KEB.7 | Morocco | Proto-Beaker | 5,700-5,600 | CT | European | Fregel et al. 2018[20] |
Nakht-Ankh | Egypt | Egyptian | 4,000 | H | Unknown | Drosou et al. 2018[21] |
Tuthmoses 1
|
Egypt | Egyptian | 3,450 | J1 | Unknown | Gad et al. 2021[22] |
Yuya | Egypt | Egyptian | 3,390 | G2 | Unknown | Gad et al. 2021[22] |
Amenhotep III | Egypt | Egyptian | 3,370 | R1b | Unknown | Gad et al. 2021[22] |
Akhenaten | Egypt | Egyptian | 3,350 | R1b | Unknown | Gad et al. 2021[22] |
Tutankhamun
|
Egypt | Egyptian | 3,340 | R1b | Unknown | Gad et al. 2021[22] |
Ramses III | Egypt | Egyptian | 3,200 | E-V38 | Unknown | Gad et al. 2021[22] |
Pentawer | Egypt | Egyptian | 3,200 | E-V38 | Unknown | Gad et al. 2021[22] |
JK2134 | Egypt | Egyptian | 2,798-2,591 | J1 | Levantine | Schuenemann et al. 2017[23] |
JK2911 | Egypt | Egyptian | 2,791-2,582 | J2 | Levantine | Schuenemann et al. 2017[23] |
R11793 | Tunisia | Phoenician | 2,711-2,355 | J2 | European | Moots et al. 2023[24] |
R11746 | Tunisia | Phoenician | 2,683-2,361 | R1b | European | Moots et al. 2023[24] |
R11751 | Tunisia | Phoenician | 2,678-2,359 | J2 | European | Moots et al. 2023[24] |
R11753 | Tunisia | Phoenician | 2,606-2,355 | J2 | European | Moots et al. 2023[24] |
JK2888 | Egypt | Egyptian | 2,119-2,024 | E-V22
|
Levantine | Schuenemann et al. 2017[23] |
R10766 | Algeria | Berber | 1,887-1,746 | G2 | Berber | Antonio et al. 2022[25] |
Y-chromosome
Previous works with Y-chromosome markers have shown that North Africa is highly heterogenous, the Y lineages found in the region are: A, B, E-V38, E-M78, E-M81, E-M123, G, F, H, I1, I2, J1, J2 and R1b. E-M81 reaches an average frequency of 40% across the region.[26] J-M267 is the second most-frequent haplogroup, accounting for around 30% of North Africans and assumed to have spread out of the Arabian Peninsula or Levant into North Africa.[27]
Keita (2008) examined a published Y-chromosome dataset on Afro-Asiatic populations and found that a key lineage
E1b1b1b (Haplogroup E-M81); formerly E3b1b, E3b2
In smaller numbers, E-M81 men can be found in
There are two recognized sub-clades, although one is much more common than the other.
- Sub clades of E1b1b1b (E-M81):
- E1b1b1b1 (E-M107). Underhill et al. (2000) found one example among Malian Arabs.
- E1b1b1b2 (E-M165). Israeli Arabs.
- E1b1b1b2b (E-M183). Most individuals belong to this subclade.[39]
The general parent
A study from Semino (published 2004) showed that
The findings of this latter study contradict a more thorough analysis Y-chromosome analysis of the
A wide-ranging study (published 2007) using 6,501 unrelated Y-chromosome samples from 81 populations found that: "Considering both these E-M78 sub-haplogroups (E-V12, E-V22, E-V65) and the E-M81 haplogroup, the contribution of Northern African lineages to the entire male gene pool of Iberia (barring Pasiegos), continental Italy and Sicily can be estimated as 5.6 percent, 3.6 percent and 6.6 percent, respectively."[41] It has also been argued that the European distribution of E-M78 and its sub-clades is compatible with the Neolithic demic diffusion of agriculture, but also possibly partly from at least, the Mesolithic. For example, Battaglia et al. (2008) estimated that E-M78 (called E1b1b1a1 in that paper) has been in Europe longer than 10,000 years. In support of this theory, human remains excavated in a Spanish funeral cave dating from approximately 7,000 years ago were shown to be in this haplogroup.[42] More recently, two E-M78 have been found in the Neolithic Sopot and Lengyel cultures from the same period in Poland,[43][44] which seems supported by the most recent studies (including autosomal research).
A very recent study about Sicily by Gaetano et al. 2008 found that "The Hg E3b1b-M81, widely diffused in northwestern African populations, is estimated to contribute to the Sicilian gene pool at a rate of 6 percent."[45]
According to the most recent and thorough study about
J-M267 (Haplogroup J1)
Recent genome-wide analysis of North Africans found substantial shared ancestry with the Middle East dating back to at least the Neolithic, and to a lesser extent sub-Saharan Africa and Europe. The recent gene flow caused by the Arab migrations to the Maghreb increased these already extant genetic similarities between North Africans and Middle Easterners.[47] Haplogroup J1-M267 accounts for around 30% of North Africans and has spread from the Arabian Peninsula and Levant, second after E1b1b1b which accounts for 45% of North Africans. A study from 2021 has shown that the highest frequency of the Middle Eastern component ever observed in North Africa so far was observed in the Arabs of Wesletia in Tunisia, who had a Middle Eastern component frequency of 71.8%.[48] According to a study from 2004, Haplogroup J1 had a frequency of 35% in Algerians and 34.2% in Tunisians.[49]
Mitochondrial DNA
Individuals receive
- The most probable origin of the proto-U6 lineage was the Afroasiaticlinguistic expansion.
A genetic study by Fadhlaoui-Zid et al. 2004
Nevertheless, individual Berber communities display a considerably high mtDNA heterogeneity among them. The Berbers of
A 2005 study discovered a close mitochondrial link between Berbers and the
According to the most recent and thorough study on Berber mtDNA from Coudray et al. 2008, which analysed 614 individuals from 10 different regions (Morocco (Asni, Bouhria, Figuig, Souss), Algeria (Mozabites), Tunisia (Chenini-Douiret, Sened, Matmata, Jerba) and Egypt (Siwa)),[56] the results may be summarized as follows:
- Total West Eurasian lineages () : 80 per cent
- Total African lineages (L5) : 20 per cent
The Berber mitochondrial pool is characterized by an overall high frequency of Western
There is a degree of dispute about when and how the minority sub-Saharan L haplogroups entered the North African gene pool. Some papers suggest that the distribution of the main L haplogroups in North Africa was mainly due to the Islamic era trans-Saharan slave trade, as espoused by Harich et .al in a study conducted in 2010.[57] However, also in September 2010, a study of Berber mtDNA by Frigi et al. concluded that some of the L haplogroups were much older and introduced by an ancient African gene flow around 20,000 years ago.[58]
Genetic studies on Iberian populations also show that North African
It is difficult to ascertain that U6's presence is the consequence of Islam's expansion into Europe during the
Autosomal DNA
On 13 January 2012, an exhaustive genetic study of North Africa's human populations was published in PLoS Genetics and was undertaken jointly by researchers in the Evolutionary Biology Institute (CSIC-UPF) and Stanford University, among other institutions.[63]
The study highlights the complex genetic makeup of North Africa. This genetic composition shows a significant local component that became more distinct around 12,000 years ago, possibly influenced by migrations, population expansions, or other demographic events. According to David Comas, coordinator of the study and researcher at the Institute for Evolutionary Biology (CSIC-UPF), "some of the questions we wanted to answer were whether today's inhabitants are direct descendants of the populations with the oldest archaeological remains in the region, dating back fifty thousand years, or whether they are descendants of the Neolithic populations in the Middle East, which introduced agriculture to the region around nine thousand years ago. We also wondered if there had been any genetic exchange between the North African populations and the neighbouring regions and if so, when these took place".[64]
To explore these questions, the research team analyzed nearly 800,000 genetic markers across the entire genomes of 125 North African individuals from seven representative populations. This data was then juxtaposed with information from neighboring populations.[64]
The findings reveal a distinct native genetic component in North Africans, setting them apart from sub-Saharan Africans and aligning them more closely with West-Eurasians, primarily Middle Easterners and Europeans. Though the study emphasizes a dominant genetic lineage in contemporary North Africans tracing back to around 12,000 years ago, it doesn't dismiss the likelihood of genetic continuity from ancient human groups present in North Africa over 60,000 years ago. The data suggests that while ancient human groups indeed inhabited the region, the majority of the modern identifiable genetic makeup stems from more recent periods. The unique North African (Maghrebi) genetic signature is distinct from ancestries found in the populations of sub-Saharan Africa. Modern North African populations were observed to share genetic markers in varying degrees with all the neighbouring regions (Southern Europe, West Asia, sub-Saharan Africa), probably as a result of more recent migrations.[64]
Hodgson et al. 2014 found a distinct non-African ancestry component among Northeastern Africans (dubbed "Ethio-Somali"), which split from other West-Eurasian ancestries, and is most closely related to the North African (Maghrebi), and Arabian ancestry components. Both would have entered Africa during a pre-agricultural period (between 12,000 to 23,000 years ago). This component is suggested to have been present in considerable amounts among the Proto-Afroasiatic-speaking peoples. The authors argue that the Ethio-Somali component and the Maghrebi component descended from a single ancestral lineage, which split from the Arabian lineage and migrated into Africa from the Middle East. That is, a common ancestral population migrated into Africa through Sinai and then split into two, with one branch continuing west across North Africa and the other heading south into the HOA.[65]
A 2015 study by Dobon et al. identified another ancestral autosomal component of
According to a paper published in 2017, most of the genetic studies on North African populations agree with a limited correlation between genetics and geography, showing a high population heterogeneity in the region (without strong differences between Arabs and Berbers). Northern African populations have been described as a mosaic of North African (Taforalt), Middle Eastern, European (Early European Farmers) and sub-Saharan ancestries.[67][68]
Ancient North African samples such as the Paleolithic
According to Lucas-Sánchez, Marcel et al. (2021) despite the geneflow from the Middle-East, Europe and sub-Saharan Africa, an autochthonous genetic component that dates back to pre-Holocene times is still present in North African groups. The analysis also showed as a whole no genetic pattern of differentiation between Tamazight (i.e. Berber) and Arabs.[74]
Ancient DNA
Unlike sub-Saharan Africans, North Africans have a similar level of Neanderthal DNA to South Europeans and West Asians, which is pre-Neolithic in origin, rather than via any later admixture with peoples from outside of North Africa during the historical period. It was found that modern North Africans derive mainly from a "back to Africa" population from Eurasia "from before 12,000 years ago (ya) (i.e., prior to the Neolithic migrations)" but more recent than 40,000 years ago which seems to "represent a genetic discontinuity with the earliest modern human settlers of North Africa (those with the Aterian industry).[75]
In 2013,
In 2013,
The E1b1b-M81 (~44%), R-M269 (~44%), and E-M132/E1a (~6%) paternal haplogroups have been found in ancient Guanche (Bimbapes) fossils excavated in Punta Azul, El Hierro, Canary Islands, which are dated to the 10th century. Maternally, the specimens all belong to the H1 clade. These locally born individuals carried the H1-16260 haplotype, which is exclusive to the Canary Islands and Algeria.[79] In 2018, DNA analysis of Later Stone Age individuals from the site of
A 2019 study seeking to determine if North Africans descend from strictly Palaeolithic groups (Taforalt), or subsequent migrations, discovered that most of the genetic variation in the region was shaped during the Neolithic. While the ancient samples had more of the Taforalt component, it is most frequent today in Western North Africans (Saharawi, Moroccans, Algerians) and Berbers, and suggested a continuity of this autochronous North African component. The consideration of Berber-speaking groups as the autochthonous peoples of North Africa was reinforced by these results.[81]
See also
- Genetic history of Africa
- Y-DNA haplogroups in populations of North Africa
- Y-DNA haplogroups in populations of the Near East
- Population history of Egypt
- Ethnic groups of North Africa
- African admixture in Europe
- Genetic studies on Jews
- Genetic studies on Arabs
- Genetic history of the Iberian Peninsula
- Genetic studies on Moroccans
- Genetic history of the Middle East
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