Genetically modified crops
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Genetically modified crops (GM crops) are plants used in
Farmers have widely adopted GM technology. Acreage increased from 1.7 million hectares in 1996 to 185.1 million hectares in 2016, some 12% of global cropland. As of 2016, major crop (
A 2014 meta-analysis concluded that GM technology adoption had reduced chemical
There is a scientific consensus[8][9][10][11] that currently available food derived from GM crops poses no greater risk to human health than conventional food,[12][13][14][15][16] but that each GM food needs to be tested on a case-by-case basis before introduction.[17][18][19] Nonetheless, members of the public are much less likely than scientists to perceive GM foods as safe.[20][21][22][23] The legal and regulatory status of GM foods varies by country, with some nations banning or restricting them, and others permitting them with widely differing degrees of regulation.[24][25][26][27]
However, opponents have objected to GM crops on grounds including environmental impacts, food safety, whether GM crops are needed to address food needs, whether they are sufficiently accessible to farmers in developing countries[28] and concerns over subjecting crops to intellectual property law. Safety concerns led 38 countries, including 19 in Europe, to officially prohibit their cultivation.[2]
History
Humans have directly influenced the genetic makeup of plants to increase their value as a crop through
Modern advances in genetics have allowed humans to more directly alter plants genetics. In 1970
The first genetically engineered crop plant was tobacco, reported in 1983.
The first genetically modified animal to be commercialised was the
GM banana cultivar QCAV-4 was approved by Australia and New Zealand in 2024. The banana resists the fungus that is fatal to the Cavendish banana, the dominant cultivar.[59]
Methods
Genetically engineered crops have genes added or removed using genetic engineering techniques,[60] originally including gene guns, electroporation, microinjection and agrobacterium. More recently, CRISPR and TALEN offered much more precise and convenient editing techniques.
Gene guns (also known as biolistics) "shoot" (direct high energy particles or radiations against
Electroporation is used when the plant tissue does not contain cell walls. In this technique, "DNA enters the plant cells through miniature pores which are temporarily caused by electric pulses."
Microinjection is used to directly inject foreign DNA into cells.[64]
Plant scientists, backed by results of modern comprehensive profiling of crop composition, point out that crops modified using GM techniques are less likely to have unintended changes than are conventionally bred crops.[65][66]
In research tobacco and Arabidopsis thaliana are the most frequently modified plants, due to well-developed transformation methods, easy propagation and well studied genomes.[67][68] They serve as model organisms for other plant species.
Introducing new genes into plants requires a
Types of modifications
Transgenic
Transgenic carrots have been used to produce the drug
Cisgenic
Subgenic
Genetically modified plants can also be developed using
Multiple trait integration
With multiple trait integration, several new traits may be integrated into a new crop.[86]
Economics
GM food's economic value to farmers is one of its major benefits, including in developing nations.[87][88][89] A 2010 study found that Bt corn provided economic benefits of $6.9 billion over the previous 14 years in five Midwestern states. The majority ($4.3 billion) accrued to farmers producing non-Bt corn. This was attributed to European corn borer populations reduced by exposure to Bt corn, leaving fewer to attack conventional corn nearby.[90][91] Agriculture economists calculated that "world surplus [increased by] $240.3 million for 1996. Of this total, the largest share (59%) went to U.S. farmers. Seed company Monsanto received the next largest share (21%), followed by US consumers (9%), the rest of the world (6%), and the germplasm supplier, Delta & Pine Land Company of Mississippi (5%)."[92]
According to the International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-biotech Applications (ISAAA), in 2014 approximately 18 million farmers grew biotech crops in 28 countries; about 94% of the farmers were resource-poor in developing countries. 53% of the global biotech crop area of 181.5 million hectares was grown in 20 developing countries.[93] PG Economics comprehensive 2012 study concluded that GM crops increased farm incomes worldwide by $14 billion in 2010, with over half this total going to farmers in developing countries.[94]
Forgoing these benefits is costly.
Critics challenged the claimed benefits to farmers over the prevalence of biased observers and by the absence of randomized controlled trials.[citation needed] The main Bt crop grown by small farmers in developing countries is cotton. A 2006 review of Bt cotton findings by agricultural economists concluded, "the overall balance sheet, though promising, is mixed. Economic returns are highly variable over years, farm type, and geographical location".[97]
In 2013 the European Academies Science Advisory Council (EASAC) asked the EU to allow the development of agricultural GM technologies to enable more sustainable agriculture, by employing fewer land, water, and nutrient resources. EASAC also criticizes the EU's "time-consuming and expensive regulatory framework" and said that the EU had fallen behind in the adoption of GM technologies.[98]
Participants in agriculture business markets include seed companies, agrochemical companies, distributors, farmers, grain elevators and universities that develop new crops/traits and whose agricultural extensions advise farmers on best practices.[citation needed] According to a 2012 review based on data from the late 1990s and early 2000s, much of the GM crop grown each year is used for livestock feed and increased demand for meat leads to increased demand for GM feed crops.[99] Feed grain usage as a percentage of total crop production is 70% for corn and more than 90% of oil seed meals such as soybeans. About 65 million metric tons of GM corn grains and about 70 million metric tons of soybean meals derived from GM soybean become feed.[99]
In 2014 the global value of biotech seed was US$15.7 billion; US$11.3 billion (72%) was in industrial countries and US$4.4 billion (28%) was in the developing countries.
Some patents on GM traits have expired, allowing the legal development of generic strains that include these traits. For example, generic glyphosate-tolerant GM soybean is now available. Another impact is that traits developed by one vendor can be added to another vendor's proprietary strains, potentially increasing product choice and competition.
Yield
In 2014, the largest review yet concluded that GM crops' effects on farming were positive. The meta-analysis considered all published English-language examinations of the agronomic and economic impacts between 1995 and March 2014 for three major GM crops: soybean, maize, and cotton. The study found that herbicide-tolerant crops have lower production costs, while for insect-resistant crops the reduced pesticide use was offset by higher seed prices, leaving overall production costs about the same.[3][109]
Yields increased 9% for herbicide tolerance and 25% for insect resistant varieties. Farmers who adopted GM crops made 69% higher profits than those who did not. The review found that GM crops help farmers in developing countries, increasing yields by 14 percentage points.[109]
The researchers considered some studies that were not peer-reviewed and a few that did not report sample sizes. They attempted to correct for
Under special conditions meant to reveal only genetic yield factors, many GM crops are known to actually have lower yields. This is variously due to one or both of: Yield drag, wherein the trait itself lowers yield, either by competing for synthesis
Gene editing may also increase yields non-specific to the use of any biocides/pesticides. In March 2022, field test results showed CRISPR-based gene knockout of KRN2 in maize and OsKRN2 in rice increased grain yields by ~10% and ~8% without any detected negative effects.[111][112]
Traits
GM crops grown today, or under development, have been modified with various
Recently,
Extended shelf life
The first genetically modified crop approved for sale in the U.S. was the It is no longer on the market.
In November 2014, the USDA approved a
In February 2015
Improved photosynthesis
Plants use non-photochemical quenching to protect them from excessive amounts of sunlight. Plants can switch on the quenching mechanism almost instantaneously, but it takes much longer for it to switch off again. During the time that it is switched off, the amount of energy that is wasted increases.[123] A genetic modification in three genes allows to correct this (in a trial with tobacco plants). As a result, yields were 14-20% higher, in terms of the weight of the dry leaves harvested. The plants had larger leaves, were taller and had more vigorous roots.[123][124]
Another improvement that can be made on the photosynthesis process (with
Improved biosequestration capability
The
Improved nutritional value
Edible oils
Some GM soybeans offer improved oil profiles for processing.
Vitamin enrichment
Golden rice, developed by the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), provides greater amounts of vitamin A targeted at reducing vitamin A deficiency.[133][134] As of January 2016, golden rice has not yet been grown commercially in any country.[135]
Toxin reduction
A genetically modified
In November 2014, the USDA approved a potato that prevents bruising and produces less acrylamide when fried.[116][117] They do not employ genes from non-potato species. The trait was added to the Russet Burbank, Ranger Russet and Atlantic varieties.[116]
Stress resistance
Plants have been engineered to tolerate non-biological
Drought resistance occurs by modifying the plant's genes responsible for the mechanism known as the crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM), which allows the plants to survive despite low water levels. This holds promise for water-heavy crops such as rice, wheat, soybeans and poplar to accelerate their adaptation to water-limited environments.[141][142] Several salinity tolerance mechanisms have been identified in salt-tolerant crops. For example, rice, canola and tomato crops have been genetically modified to increase their tolerance to salt stress.[143][144]
Herbicides
Glyphosate
The most prevalent GM trait is herbicide tolerance,
This trait was developed because the herbicides used on grain and grass crops at the time were highly toxic and not effective against narrow-leaved weeds. Thus, developing crops that could withstand spraying with glyphosate would both reduce environmental and health risks, and give an agricultural edge to the farmer.[147]
Some micro-organisms have a version of EPSPS that is resistant to glyphosate inhibition. One of these was isolated from an
The
Bromoxynil
Tobacco plants have been engineered to be resistant to the herbicide bromoxynil.[150]
Glufosinate
Crops have been commercialized that are resistant to the herbicide glufosinate, as well.[151] Crops engineered for resistance to multiple herbicides to allow farmers to use a mixed group of two, three, or four different chemicals are under development to combat growing herbicide resistance.[152][153]
2,4-D
In October 2014 the US EPA registered
Dicamba
Monsanto has requested approval for a stacked strain that is tolerant of both glyphosate and
Pest resistance
Insects
Tobacco, corn, rice and some other crops have been engineered to express genes encoding for insecticidal proteins from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt).[163][164] The introduction of Bt crops during the period between 1996 and 2005 has been estimated to have reduced the total volume of insecticide active ingredient use in the United States by over 100 thousand tons. This represents a 19.4% reduction in insecticide use.[165]
In the late 1990s, a genetically modified potato that was resistant to the Colorado potato beetle was withdrawn because major buyers rejected it, fearing consumer opposition.[116]
Viruses
Papaya, potatoes, and squash have been engineered to resist viral pathogens such as cucumber mosaic virus which, despite its name, infects a wide variety of plants.[166] Virus resistant papaya were developed in response to a papaya ringspot virus (PRV) outbreak in Hawaii in the late 1990s. They incorporate PRV DNA.[167][168] By 2010, 80% of Hawaiian papaya plants were genetically modified.[169][170]
Potatoes were engineered for resistance to
Yellow squash that were resistant to at first two, then three viruses were developed, beginning in the 1990s. The viruses are watermelon, cucumber and zucchini/courgette yellow mosaic. Squash was the second GM crop to be approved by US regulators. The trait was later added to zucchini.[172]
Many strains of corn have been developed in recent years to combat the spread of Maize dwarf mosaic virus, a costly virus that causes stunted growth which is carried in Johnson grass and spread by aphid insect vectors. These strands are commercially available although the resistance is not standard among GM corn variants.[173]
By-products
Drugs
In 2012, the FDA approved the first
Biofuel
Materials
Companies and labs are working on plants that can be used to make
.Non-pesticide pest management products
Besides the modified oilcrop above,
Bioremediation
Scientists at the University of York developed a weed (
Genetically modified plants have been used for bioremediation of contaminated soils. Mercury, selenium and organic pollutants such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs).[187][189]
Marine environments are especially vulnerable since pollution such as
Asexual reproduction
Crops such as
Other
Genetic modifications to some crops also exist, which make it easier to process the crop, i.e. by growing it in a more compact form.
Crops
Herbicide tolerance
Crop | Use | Countries approved in | First approved[196] | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|
Alfalfa | Animal feed[197] | US | 2005 | Approval withdrawn in 2007[198] and then re-approved in 2011[199] |
Canola | Cooking oil | Australia | 2003 | |
Canada | 1995 | |||
US | 1995 | |||
Cotton
|
Fiber Cottonseed oil Animal feed[197] |
Argentina | 2001 | |
Australia | 2002 | |||
Brazil | 2008 | |||
Colombia | 2004 | |||
Costa Rica | 2008 | |||
Mexico | 2000 | |||
Paraguay | 2013 | |||
South Africa | 2000 | |||
US | 1994 | |||
Maize | Animal feed
high-fructose corn syrup
|
Argentina | 1998 | |
Brazil | 2007 | |||
Canada | 1996 | |||
Colombia | 2007 | |||
Cuba | 2011 | |||
European Union | 1998 | Grown in Portugal, Spain, Czech Republic, Slovakia and Romania[200] | ||
Honduras | 2001 | |||
Paraguay | 2012 | |||
Philippines | 2002 | |||
South Africa | 2002 | |||
US | 1995 | |||
Uruguay | 2003 | |||
Soybean | Animal feed | Argentina | 1996 | |
Bolivia | 2005 | |||
Brazil | 1998 | |||
Canada | 1995 | |||
Chile | 2007 | |||
Costa Rica | 2001 | |||
Mexico | 1996 | |||
Paraguay | 2004 | |||
South Africa | 2001 | |||
US | 1993 | |||
Uruguay | 1996 | |||
Sugar Beet | Food[201] | Canada | 2001 | |
US | 1998 | Commercialised 2007,[202] production blocked 2010, resumed 2011.[201] |
Insect resistance
Crop | Use | Countries approved in | First approved[196] | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|
Cotton
|
Fiber Cottonseed oil Animal feed[197] |
Argentina | 1998 | |
Australia | 2003 | |||
Brazil | 2005 | |||
Burkina Faso | 2009 | |||
China | 1997 | |||
Colombia | 2003 | |||
Costa Rica | 2008 | |||
India | 2002 | Largest producer of Bt cotton[203] | ||
Mexico | 1996 | |||
Myanmar | 2006[N 1] | |||
Pakistan | 2010[N 1] | |||
Paraguay | 2007 | |||
South Africa | 1997 | |||
Sudan | 2012 | |||
US | 1995 | |||
Eggplant
|
Food | Bangladesh | 2013 | 12 ha planted on 120 farms in 2014[204] |
Maize | Animal feed
high-fructose corn syrup
|
Argentina | 1998 | |
Brazil | 2005 | |||
Colombia | 2003 | |||
Mexico | 1996 | Centre of origin for maize[205] | ||
Paraguay | 2007 | |||
Philippines | 2002 | |||
South Africa | 1997 | |||
Uruguay | 2003 | |||
US | 1995 | |||
Poplar | Tree | China | 1998 | 543 ha of bt poplar planted in 2014[206] |
Other modified traits
Crop | Use | Trait | Countries approved in | First approved[196] | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Canola | Cooking oil
Emulsifiers in packaged foods[197] |
High laurate canola
|
Canada | 1996 | |
US | 1994 | ||||
Phytase production | US | 1998 | |||
Carnation | Ornamental | Delayed senescence | Australia | 1995 | |
Norway | 1998 | ||||
Modified flower colour | Australia | 1995 | |||
Colombia | 2000 | In 2014 4 ha were grown in greenhouses for export[207] | |||
European Union | 1998 | Two events expired 2008, another approved 2007 | |||
Japan | 2004 | ||||
Malaysia | 2012 | For ornamental purposes | |||
Norway | 1997 | ||||
Maize | Animal feed
high-fructose corn syrup
|
Increased lysine | Canada | 2006 | |
US | 2006 | ||||
Drought tolerance | Canada | 2010 | |||
US | 2011 | ||||
Papaya | Food[197] | Virus resistance | China | 2006 | |
US | 1996 | Mostly grown in Hawaii[197] | |||
Petunia | Ornamental | Modified flower colour | China | 1997[208] | |
Potato | Food[197] | Virus resistance | Canada | 1999 | |
US | 1997 | ||||
Industrial[209] | Modified starch | US | 2014 | ||
Rose | Ornamental | Modified flower colour | Australia | 2009 | Surrendered renewal |
Colombia | 2010[N 2] | Greenhouse cultivation for export only. | |||
Japan | 2008 | ||||
US | 2011 | ||||
Soybean | Animal feed | Increased oleic acid production | Argentina | 2015 | |
Canada | 2000 | ||||
US | 1997 | ||||
Stearidonic acid production | Canada | 2011 | |||
US | 2011 | ||||
Squash | Food[197] | Virus resistance | US | 1994 | |
Sugar Cane | Food | Drought tolerance | Indonesia | 2013 | Environmental certificate only |
Tobacco | Cigarettes | Nicotine reduction | US | 2002 |
GM Camelina
Several modifications of Camelina sativa have been done, see §Edible oils and §Non-pesticide pest management products above.
Development
The number of USDA-approved field releases for testing grew from 4 in 1985 to 1,194 in 2002 and averaged around 800 per year thereafter. The number of sites per release and the number of gene constructs (ways that the gene of interest is packaged together with other elements) – have rapidly increased since 2005. Releases with agronomic properties (such as drought resistance) jumped from 1,043 in 2005 to 5,190 in 2013. As of September 2013, about 7,800 releases had been approved for corn, more than 2,200 for soybeans, more than 1,100 for cotton, and about 900 for potatoes. Releases were approved for herbicide tolerance (6,772 releases), insect resistance (4,809), product quality such as flavor or nutrition (4,896), agronomic properties like drought resistance (5,190), and virus/fungal resistance (2,616). The institutions with the most authorized field releases include Monsanto with 6,782, Pioneer/DuPont with 1,405, Syngenta with 565, and USDA's Agricultural Research Service with 370. As of September 2013 USDA had received proposals for releasing GM rice, squash, plum, rose, tobacco, flax, and chicory.[210]
Farming practices
Resistance
Bacillus thuringiensis
Constant exposure to a toxin creates evolutionary pressure for pests resistant to that toxin.[211] Over-reliance on glyphosate and a reduction in the diversity of weed management practices allowed the spread of glyphosate resistance in 14 weed species in the US,[210] and in soybeans.[5]
To reduce resistance to Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) crops, the 1996 commercialization of transgenic cotton and maize came with a management strategy to prevent insects from becoming resistant. Insect resistance management plans are mandatory for Bt crops. The aim is to encourage a large population of pests so that any (recessive) resistance genes are diluted within the population. Resistance lowers evolutionary fitness in the absence of the stressor, Bt. In refuges, non-resistant strains outcompete resistant ones.[212]
With sufficiently high levels of transgene expression, nearly all of the heterozygotes (S/s), i.e., the largest segment of the pest population carrying a resistance allele, will be killed before maturation, thus preventing transmission of the resistance gene to their progeny.[213] Refuges (i. e., fields of nontransgenic plants) adjacent to transgenic fields increases the likelihood that homozygous resistant (s/s) individuals and any surviving heterozygotes will mate with susceptible (S/S) individuals from the refuge, instead of with other individuals carrying the resistance allele. As a result, the resistance gene frequency in the population remains lower.
Complicating factors can affect the success of the high-dose/refuge strategy. For example, if the temperature is not ideal, thermal stress can lower Bt toxin production and leave the plant more susceptible. More importantly, reduced late-season expression has been documented, possibly resulting from
Companies that produce Bt seed are introducing strains with multiple Bt proteins. Monsanto did this with Bt cotton in India, where the product was rapidly adopted.
Herbicide resistance
Plant protection
Farmers generally use less insecticide when they plant Bt-resistant crops. Insecticide use on corn farms declined from 0.21 pound per planted acre in 1995 to 0.02 pound in 2010. This is consistent with the decline in European corn borer populations as a direct result of Bt corn and cotton. The establishment of minimum refuge requirements helped delay the evolution of Bt resistance. However, resistance appears to be developing to some Bt traits in some areas.[210] In Columbia, GM cotton has reduced insecticide usage by 25% and herbicide usage by 5%, and GM corn has reduced insecticide and herbicide usage by 66% and 13%, respectively.[222]
Tillage
By leaving at least 30% of crop residue on the soil surface from harvest through planting,
Greenhouse gas emissions
Combined features of increased yield, decreased land use, reduced use of fertilizer and reduced farming machinery use create a feedback loop that reduces carbon emissions related to farming. These reductions have been estimated at 7.5% of total agricultural emissions in the EU or 33 millions tons of CO2[224] and an estimated 8.76 million tons of CO2 in Columbia.[222]
Drought tolerance
The use of drought tolerant crops can increase yield in water-scarce locations, making farming possible in new areas. The adoption of drought tolerant maize in Ghana was shown to increase yield by more than 150% and boost commercialization intensity, although it did not significantly affect farm income.[225]
Regulation
The regulation of genetic engineering concerns the approaches taken by governments to assess and manage the risks associated with the development and release of genetically modified crops. There are differences in the regulation of GM crops between countries, with some of the most marked differences occurring between the US and Europe. Regulation varies in a given country depending on the intended use of each product. For example, a crop not intended for food use is generally not reviewed by authorities responsible for food safety.[226][227]
Production
In 2013, GM crops were planted in 27 countries; 19 were developing countries and 8 were developed countries. 2013 was the second year in which developing countries grew a majority (54%) of the total GM harvest. 18 million farmers grew GM crops; around 90% were small-holding farmers in developing countries.[1]
Country | 2013– GM planted area (million hectares)[228] | Biotech crops |
---|---|---|
US | 70.1 | Maize, Soybean, Cotton, Canola, Sugarbeet, Alfalfa, Papaya, Squash |
Brazil | 40.3 | Soybean, Maize, Cotton |
Argentina | 24.4 | Soybean, Maize, Cotton |
India | 11.0 | Cotton |
Canada | 10.8 | Canola, Maize, Soybean, Sugarbeet |
Total | 175.2 | ---- |
The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) reports every year on the total area of GM crop varieties planted in the United States.[229][230] According to National Agricultural Statistics Service, the states published in these tables represent 81–86 percent of all corn planted area, 88–90 percent of all soybean planted area, and 81–93 percent of all upland cotton planted area (depending on the year).
Global estimates are produced by the International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-biotech Applications (ISAAA) and can be found in their annual reports, "Global Status of Commercialized Transgenic Crops".[1][231]
Farmers have widely adopted GM technology (see figure). Between 1996 and 2013, the total surface area of land cultivated with GM crops increased by a factor of 100, from 17,000 square kilometers (4,200,000 acres) to 1,750,000 km2 (432 million acres).[1] 10% of the world's arable land was planted with GM crops in 2010.[55] As of 2011, 11 different transgenic crops were grown commercially on 395 million acres (160 million hectares) in 29 countries such as the US, Brazil, Argentina, India, Canada, China, Paraguay, Pakistan, South Africa, Uruguay, Bolivia, Australia, Philippines, Myanmar, Burkina Faso, Mexico and Spain.[55] One of the key reasons for this widespread adoption is the perceived economic benefit the technology brings to farmers. For example, the system of planting glyphosate-resistant seed and then applying glyphosate once plants emerged provided farmers with the opportunity to dramatically increase the yield from a given plot of land, since this allowed them to plant rows closer together. Without it, farmers had to plant rows far enough apart to control post-emergent weeds with mechanical tillage.[232] Likewise, using Bt seeds means that farmers do not have to purchase insecticides, and then invest time, fuel, and equipment in applying them. However critics have disputed whether yields are higher and whether chemical use is less, with GM crops. See Genetically modified food controversies article for information.
In the US, by 2014, 94% of the planted area of soybeans, 96% of cotton and 93% of corn were genetically modified varieties.[233][234][235] Genetically modified soybeans carried herbicide-tolerant traits only, but maize and cotton carried both herbicide tolerance and insect protection traits (the latter largely Bt protein).[236] These constitute "input-traits" that are aimed to financially benefit the producers, but may have indirect environmental benefits and cost benefits to consumers. The Grocery Manufacturers of America estimated in 2003 that 70–75% of all processed foods in the U.S. contained a GM ingredient.[237]
Europe grows relatively few genetically engineered crops[238] with the exception of Spain, where one fifth of maize is genetically engineered,[239] and smaller amounts in five other countries.[240] The EU had a 'de facto' ban on the approval of new GM crops, from 1999 until 2004.[241][242] GM crops are now regulated by the EU.[243] In 2015, genetically engineered crops are banned in 38 countries worldwide, 19 of them in Europe.[244][245] Developing countries grew 54 percent of genetically engineered crops in 2013.[1]
In recent years GM crops expanded rapidly in developing countries. In 2013 approximately 18 million farmers grew 54% of worldwide GM crops in developing countries.[1] 2013's largest increase was in Brazil (403,000 km2 versus 368,000 km2 in 2012). GM cotton began growing in India in 2002, reaching 110,000 km2 in 2013.[1]
According to the 2013 ISAAA brief: "a total of 36 countries (35 + EU-28) have granted regulatory approvals for biotech crops for food and/or feed use and for environmental release or planting since 1994 ... a total of 2,833 regulatory approvals involving 27 GM crops and 336 GM events (NB: an "event" is a specific genetic modification in a specific species) have been issued by authorities, of which 1,321 are for food use (direct use or processing), 918 for feed use (direct use or processing) and 599 for environmental release or planting. Japan has the largest number (198), followed by the U.S.A. (165, not including "stacked" events), Canada (146), Mexico (131), South Korea (103), Australia (93), New Zealand (83), European Union (71 including approvals that have expired or under renewal process), Philippines (68), Taiwan (65), Colombia (59), China (55) and South Africa (52). Maize has the largest number (130 events in 27 countries), followed by cotton (49 events in 22 countries), potato (31 events in 10 countries), canola (30 events in 12 countries) and soybean (27 events in 26 countries).[1]
Controversy
Direct genetic engineering has been controversial since its introduction. Most, but not all of the controversies are over GM foods rather than crops per se. GM foods are the subject of protests, vandalism, referendums, legislation, court action[246] and scientific disputes. The controversies involve consumers, biotechnology companies, governmental regulators, non-governmental organizations and scientists.
Opponents have objected to GM crops on multiple grounds including environmental impacts, food safety, whether GM crops are needed to address food needs, whether they are sufficiently accessible to farmers in developing countries,[28] concerns over subjecting crops to intellectual property law, and on religious grounds.[247] Secondary issues include labeling, the behavior of government regulators, the effects of pesticide use and pesticide tolerance.
A significant environmental concern about using genetically modified crops is possible cross-breeding with related crops, giving them advantages over naturally occurring varieties. One example is a glyphosate-resistant rice crop that crossbreeds with a weedy relative, giving the weed a competitive advantage. The transgenic hybrid had higher rates of photosynthesis, more shoots and flowers, and more seeds than the non-transgenic hybrids.[248] This demonstrates the possibility of ecosystem damage by GM crop usage.
The role of biopiracy in the development of GM crops is also potentially problematic, as developed countries have gotten economic gain by using the genetic resources of developing countries. In the twentieth century, the International Rice Research Institute catalogued the genomes of almost 80,000 varieties of rice from Asian farms, which has since been used to create new higher yielding varieties of rice. These new varieties create almost 655 million dollars of economic gain for Australia, USA, Canada, and New Zealand every year.[249]
There is a scientific consensus[8][9][10][11] that currently available food derived from GM crops poses no greater risk to human health than conventional food,[12][13][14][15][16] but that each GM food needs to be tested on a case-by-case basis before introduction.[17][18][19] Nonetheless, members of the public are much less likely than scientists to perceive GM foods as safe.[20][21][22][23] The legal and regulatory status of GM foods varies by country, with some nations banning or restricting them, and others permitting them with widely differing degrees of regulation.[24][25][26][27]
No reports of ill effects from GM food have been documented in the human population.[250][251][252] GM crop labeling is required in many countries, although the United States Food and Drug Administration does not, nor does it distinguish between approved GM and non-GM foods.[253] The United States enacted a law that requires labeling regulations to be issued by July 2018. It allows indirect disclosure such as with a phone number, bar code, or web site.[254]
Advocacy groups such as Center for Food Safety, Union of Concerned Scientists, and Greenpeace claim that risks related to GM food have not been adequately examined and managed, that GM crops are not sufficiently tested and should be labelled, and that regulatory authorities and scientific bodies are too closely tied to industry. [citation needed] Some studies have claimed that genetically modified crops can cause harm;[255][256] a 2016 review that reanalyzed the data from six of these studies found that their statistical methodologies were flawed and did not demonstrate harm, and said that conclusions about GM crop safety should be drawn from "the totality of the evidence ... instead of far-fetched evidence from single studies".[257]
See also
Notes
References
- ^ a b c d e f g h "ISAAA 2013 Annual Report". ISAAA Brief 46-2013. 2013. Retrieved 6 August 2014.
Executive Summary, Global Status of Commercialized Biotech/GM Crops
- ^ PMID 29449686.
- ^ PMID 25365303.
- ^ Pollack A (13 April 2010). "Study Says Overuse Threatens Gains From Modified Crops". The New York Times.
- ^ PMID 27652335.
- ^ PMID 31544299.
- S2CID 20145281.
- ^ S2CID 9836802.
We have reviewed the scientific literature on GE crop safety for the last 10 years that catches the scientific consensus matured since GE plants became widely cultivated worldwide, and we can conclude that the scientific research conducted so far has not detected any significant hazard directly connected with the use of GM crops.
The literature about Biodiversity and the GE food/feed consumption has sometimes resulted in animated debate regarding the suitability of the experimental designs, the choice of the statistical methods or the public accessibility of data. Such debate, even if positive and part of the natural process of review by the scientific community, has frequently been distorted by the media and often used politically and inappropriately in anti-GE crops campaigns. - ^ a b "State of Food and Agriculture 2003–2004. Agricultural Biotechnology: Meeting the Needs of the Poor. Health and environmental impacts of transgenic crops". Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Retrieved 30 August 2019.
Currently available transgenic crops and foods derived from them have been judged safe to eat and the methods used to test their safety have been deemed appropriate. These conclusions represent the consensus of the scientific evidence surveyed by the ICSU (2003) and they are consistent with the views of the World Health Organization (WHO, 2002). These foods have been assessed for increased risks to human health by several national regulatory authorities (inter alia, Argentina, Brazil, Canada, China, the United Kingdom and the United States) using their national food safety procedures (ICSU). To date no verifiable untoward toxic or nutritionally deleterious effects resulting from the consumption of foods derived from genetically modified crops have been discovered anywhere in the world (GM Science Review Panel). Many millions of people have consumed foods derived from GM plants - mainly maize, soybean and oilseed rape - without any observed adverse effects (ICSU).
- ^ PMID 21546547.
There is broad scientific consensus that genetically engineered crops currently on the market are safe to eat. After 14 years of cultivation and a cumulative total of 2 billion acres planted, no adverse health or environmental effects have resulted from commercialization of genetically engineered crops (Board on Agriculture and Natural Resources, Committee on Environmental Impacts Associated with Commercialization of Transgenic Plants, National Research Council and Division on Earth and Life Studies 2002). Both the U.S. National Research Council and the Joint Research Centre (the European Union's scientific and technical research laboratory and an integral part of the European Commission) have concluded that there is a comprehensive body of knowledge that adequately addresses the food safety issue of genetically engineered crops (Committee on Identifying and Assessing Unintended Effects of Genetically Engineered Foods on Human Health and National Research Council 2004; European Commission Joint Research Centre 2008). These and other recent reports conclude that the processes of genetic engineering and conventional breeding are no different in terms of unintended consequences to human health and the environment (European Commission Directorate-General for Research and Innovation 2010).
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It is therefore not surprising that efforts to require labeling and to ban GMOs have been a growing political issue in the USA (citing Domingo and Bordonaba, 2011). Overall, a broad scientific consensus holds that currently marketed GM food poses no greater risk than conventional food ... Major national and international science and medical associations have stated that no adverse human health effects related to GMO food have been reported or substantiated in peer-reviewed literature to date.
Despite various concerns, today, the American Association for the Advancement of Science, the World Health Organization, and many independent international science organizations agree that GMOs are just as safe as other foods. Compared with conventional breeding techniques, genetic engineering is far more precise and, in most cases, less likely to create an unexpected outcome. - ^ a b "Statement by the AAAS Board of Directors On Labeling of Genetically Modified Foods" (PDF). American Association for the Advancement of Science. 20 October 2012. Retrieved 30 August 2019.
The EU, for example, has invested more than €300 million in research on the biosafety of GMOs. Its recent report states: "The main conclusion to be drawn from the efforts of more than 130 research projects, covering a period of more than 25 years of research and involving more than 500 independent research groups, is that biotechnology, and in particular GMOs, are not per se more risky than e.g. conventional plant breeding technologies." The World Health Organization, the American Medical Association, the U.S. National Academy of Sciences, the British Royal Society, and every other respected organization that has examined the evidence has come to the same conclusion: consuming foods containing ingredients derived from GM crops is no riskier than consuming the same foods containing ingredients from crop plants modified by conventional plant improvement techniques.
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A report issued by the scientific council of the American Medical Association (AMA) says that no long-term health effects have been detected from the use of transgenic crops and genetically modified foods, and that these foods are substantially equivalent to their conventional counterparts." "Crops and foods produced using recombinant DNA techniques have been available for fewer than 10 years and no long-term effects have been detected to date. These foods are substantially equivalent to their conventional counterparts.
"Report 2 of the Council On Science and Public Health (A-12): Labeling of Bioengineered Foods" (PDF). American Medical Association. 2012. Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 September 2012. Retrieved 30 August 2019.Bioengineered foods have been consumed for close to 20 years, and during that time, no overt consequences on human health have been reported and/or substantiated in the peer-reviewed literature.
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Several scientific organizations in the US have issued studies or statements regarding the safety of GMOs indicating that there is no evidence that GMOs present unique safety risks compared to conventionally bred products. These include the National Research Council, the American Association for the Advancement of Science, and the American Medical Association. Groups in the US opposed to GMOs include some environmental organizations, organic farming organizations, and consumer organizations. A substantial number of legal academics have criticized the US's approach to regulating GMOs.
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Overall finding on purported adverse effects on human health of foods derived from GE crops: On the basis of detailed examination of comparisons of currently commercialized GE with non-GE foods in compositional analysis, acute and chronic animal toxicity tests, long-term data on health of livestock fed GE foods, and human epidemiological data, the committee found no differences that implicate a higher risk to human health from GE foods than from their non-GE counterparts.
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Different GM organisms include different genes inserted in different ways. This means that individual GM foods and their safety should be assessed on a case-by-case basis and that it is not possible to make general statements on the safety of all GM foods.
GM foods currently available on the international market have passed safety assessments and are not likely to present risks for human health. In addition, no effects on human health have been shown as a result of the consumption of such foods by the general population in the countries where they have been approved. Continuous application of safety assessments based on the Codex Alimentarius principles and, where appropriate, adequate post market monitoring, should form the basis for ensuring the safety of GM foods. - ^ S2CID 2533628.
These principles dictate a case-by-case premarket assessment that includes an evaluation of both direct and unintended effects.
- ^ a b Some medical organizations, including the British Medical Association, advocate further caution based upon the precautionary principle:
"Genetically modified foods and health: a second interim statement" (PDF). British Medical Association. March 2004. Retrieved 30 August 2019.In our view, the potential for GM foods to cause harmful health effects is very small and many of the concerns expressed apply with equal vigour to conventionally derived foods. However, safety concerns cannot, as yet, be dismissed completely on the basis of information currently available.
When seeking to optimise the balance between benefits and risks, it is prudent to err on the side of caution and, above all, learn from accumulating knowledge and experience. Any new technology such as genetic modification must be examined for possible benefits and risks to human health and the environment. As with all novel foods, safety assessments in relation to GM foods must be made on a case-by-case basis.
Members of the GM jury project were briefed on various aspects of genetic modification by a diverse group of acknowledged experts in the relevant subjects. The GM jury reached the conclusion that the sale of GM foods currently available should be halted and the moratorium on commercial growth of GM crops should be continued. These conclusions were based on the precautionary principle and lack of evidence of any benefit. The Jury expressed concern over the impact of GM crops on farming, the environment, food safety and other potential health effects.
The Royal Society review (2002) concluded that the risks to human health associated with the use of specific viral DNA sequences in GM plants are negligible, and while calling for caution in the introduction of potential allergens into food crops, stressed the absence of evidence that commercially available GM foods cause clinical allergic manifestations. The BMA shares the view that there is no robust evidence to prove that GM foods are unsafe but we endorse the call for further research and surveillance to provide convincing evidence of safety and benefit. - ^ a b Funk C, Rainie L (29 January 2015). "Public and Scientists' Views on Science and Society". Pew Research Center. Retrieved 30 August 2019.
The largest differences between the public and the AAAS scientists are found in beliefs about the safety of eating genetically modified (GM) foods. Nearly nine-in-ten (88%) scientists say it is generally safe to eat GM foods compared with 37% of the general public, a difference of 51 percentage points.
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