Genital modification and mutilation

Genital modifications are forms of

Many types of genital modification are performed at the behest of the individual, for personal, sexual, aesthetic or cultural reasons.^[1]

Social acceptance for male intimate cosmetic surgery seem to have happened around the 2010s, decades after other types of cosmetic surgeries.^[1]

Similarly, pearling involves surgical insertion of small, inert spheres under the skin along the shaft of the penis for the purpose of providing sexual stimulation to the walls of the vagina.^[2] Similar to tattooing, genital scarification is primarily done for aesthetic reasons by adding decorative scars to the skin.^[4] The genital decoration by scars is an ancient tradition in many cultures, both for men and women.^[4]

People who are transgender may undergo gender-affirming surgery to alter their genitals to match their gender identity. Not all transgender people elect to have these surgeries.^[5]

Some of the surgical procedures are

The following types of unvoluntary genital cutting or surgery can be done on children, for nontherapeutic (medically unncessary) reasons:[7] clitoral reduction surgeries on children with CAH,^[7]: 24 hypospadias surgeries,^[7]: 24 removal of internal gonads^[7]: 24 and penile circumcision.^[7]: 24 In some societies, other types of endosex girl genital cutting happen.^[7]: 22 They can be done for

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Intersex children and children with ambiguous genitalia may be subjected to surgeries to "normalize" the appearance of their genitalia.^[8]

These surgeries are usually performed for cosmetic benefit rather than for therapeutic reasons.

Genital mutilation is common in some situations of war or armed conflict, with perpetrators using violence against the genitals of men, women, and non-binary people.[12] These different forms of sexual violence can terrorize targeted individuals and communities, prevent individuals from reproducing, and cause tremendous pain and psychological anguish for victims.^[12]

If the genitals become diseased, as in the case of cancer, sometimes the diseased areas are surgically removed.^[13] Females may undergo vaginectomy or vulvectomy (to the vagina and vulva, respectively), while males may undergo penectomy or orchiectomy (removal of the penis and testicles, respectively).^[13] Reconstructive surgery may be performed to restore what was lost, often with techniques similar to those used in gender-affirming surgery.^[14]

During childbirth, an episiotomy (cutting part of the tissue between the vagina and the anus) is sometimes performed to increase the amount of space through which the baby may emerge.^[13]

Hymenotomy is the surgical perforation of an imperforate hymen.^[13] It may be performed to allow menstruation to occur.^[14] An adult individual may opt for increasing the size of her hymenal opening, or removal of the hymen altogether, to facilitate sexual penetration of her vagina.^[13][14]

A person may engage in self-inflicted genital injury or mutilation such as

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t e

Female

FGM is considered a form of violence against women by the Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women, which was adopted by the United Nations in 1993; it states: "Article Two: Violence against women shall be understood to encompass, but not be limited to, the following: (a) Physical, sexual and psychological violence occurring in the family, including ... female genital mutilation ...".^[20] However, because of its importance in traditional life, it continues to be practised in many societies.^[21]

Hymenorrhaphy refers to the practice of thickening the hymen, or, in some cases, implanting a capsule of red liquid within the newly created vaginal tissue.

Labia stretching is the act of elongating the labia minora through manual manipulation (pulling) or physical equipment (such as weights).^[22][23] It is a familial cultural practice in Rwanda,^[22] common in Sub-Saharan Africa,^[24] and a body modification practice elsewhere.^[23] It is performed for sexual enhancement of both partners, aesthetics, symmetry and gratification.^[22][23]

In the article Designer Vaginas by Simone Weil Davis, she talks about the modification of woman's vagina and the outside influences women are pressured with, which can cause them to feel shame towards their labia minora. She states that the media, such as pornography, creates an unhealthy view of what a "good looking vagina" is and how women feel that their privates are inferior and are therefore pressured to act upon that mindset. These insecurities are forced upon women by their partners and other women as well.^[31] Also leading to a surge of these types of procedures is increased interest in non-surgical genital alterations, such as Brazilian waxing, that make the vulva more visible to judgment. The incentive to participate in vulvo- and vaginoplasty may also come about in an effort to manage women's physical attributes and their sexual behavior, treating their vagina as something needing to be managed or controlled and ultimately deemed "acceptable".^[32]

Clitoral hood reduction is a form of hoodplasty. When performed with the consent of the adult individual, it can be considered an elective plastic surgery procedure for reducing the size and the area of the clitoral hood (prepuce) in order to further expose the glans of the clitoris; the therapeutic goal is thought to improve the sexual functioning of the woman, and the aesthetic appeal of her vulva. The reduction of the clitoral prepuce tissues usually is a sub-ordinate surgery within a labiaplasty procedure for reducing the labia minora; and occasionally within a vaginoplasty procedure. When these procedures are performed on individuals without their consent, they are considered a form of female genital mutilation.

Castration in the genital modification and mutilation context is the removal of the

surgical procedure or use of a circumcision instrument or device. Complications are rare.^[36][37][38] Modern proponents say that circumcision reduces the risks of a range of infections and diseases and confers sexual benefits.^[39][40] Opponents, particularly of routine neonatal circumcision, question its preventive efficacy and object to subjecting non-consenting newborn males to a procedure that is potentially harmful, in their view, with little to no benefit, as well as violating their human rights and possibly negatively impacting their sex life.^[41][42][43] There is a consensus among the world's major medical organizations and in the academic literature that circumcision is an efficacious intervention for HIV prevention in high-risk populations if carried out by medical professionals under safe conditions.^[44][45] They hold variant perspectives on the prophylactic efficacy of the elective circumcision of minors in developed nations.^[46]

Foreskin restoration

Main article: Foreskin restoration

Foreskin restoration is the partial recreation of the foreskin after its removal by circumcision.

Surgical restoration involves grafting skin taken from the scrotum onto a portion of the penile shaft. Nonsurgical methods involve tissue expansion by stretching the penile skin forward over the glans penis with the aid of tension. Nonsurgical restoration is the preferred method as it is less costly and typically yields better results than surgical restoration. A foreskin restoration device may be of help to men pursuing nonsurgical foreskin restoration. While restoration cannot recreate the nerves or tissues lost to circumcision, it can recreate the appearance and some of the function of a natural foreskin.

Infibulation

Main article: Infibulation

Infibulation literally means "to close with a clasp or a pin.” The word is used to include suturing of the foreskin over the head of the penis.

Early Greek infibulation consisted of tying the most distal portion of the foreskin with kynodesme to conceal the glans. The kynodesme was also used by the Etruscans and Romans (ligatura praeputii), but the Romans preferred to apply a gold, silver, or bronze ring (annulus), a metal clasp (fibula) or pin.^[47]

In modern times, male infibulation may be performed for personal preferences or as part of BDSM.

Emasculation

Main article: Emasculation

Emasculation is the removal of both the penis and the testicles, the external male sex organs. It differs from castration, which is the removal of the testicles only, although the terms are sometimes used interchangeably.

Genital nullification is a procedure practiced in a body modification subculture made up mostly of men who have had their genitals surgically removed. Those undergoing the procedure often go by the name of nullos, and are not necessarily transgender or nonbinary; some identify as eunuchs.^[48] The term nullo is short for genital nullification.^[49] Though the procedure is mostly sought by men, female genital mutilation may be referred to as clitoral nullification.^[50]

In modern-day South Asia, some members of hijra communities reportedly undergo emasculation. It is called nirwaan and seen as a rite of passage.^[51]

It was part of the eunuch-making of the Chinese court, and it was widespread in the Arab slave trade. A castrated slave was worth more, and this offset the losses from death.^[52]

Pearling

Main article: Pearling (body modification)

Pearling or genital beading is a form of body modification, the practice of permanently inserting small beads made of various materials beneath the skin of the genitals—of the labia, or of the shaft or foreskin of the penis. As well as being an aesthetic practice, this is usually intended to enhance the sexual pleasure of the receptive partner(s) during vaginal or anal intercourse.

Penectomy

Main articles: Penectomy and Penis removal

Penectomy involves the partial or total amputation of the penis. Sometimes, the removal of the entire penis was done in conjunction with castration, or incorrectly referred to as castration. Removing the penis was often performed on

eunuchs and high ranking men who would frequently be in contact with women, such as those belonging to a harem. The hijra of India may remove their penis as an expression of their gender identity. In the medical field, removal of the penis may be performed for reasons of gangrene or cancer

.

In the ulwaluko circumcision ceremony, which is performed by spear, accidental penectomy is a serious risk.^[53]

In the United States In 1907 Bertha Boronda sliced off her husband's penis with a straight razor.^[54] Lorena Bobbit infamously removed her husband's penis in 1993. In the latter case, the use of microsurgery was able to reattach Bobbitt's penis.^[55]

Penis enlargement

Main article: Penis enlargement

Penis reduction

Main article: Penis reduction

Penile subincision/meatotomy

Main article: Penile subincision

Penile subincision is a form of genital modification involves a

sexually transmitted diseases, issues with fertility (due to lack of control over what direction the sperm goes after ejaculation), and may require a man to sit down while urinating.^[56] When the surgery is not performed in a hospital or by a licensed medical professional, complications such as infection, exsanguination

, or permanent damage are major concerns.

Penile superincision

A rectal slit (also known as superincision) is an incision made along the upper length of the foreskin with the intention to expose the glans penis without removing skin or tissue.

The practice appears to have occurred in Ancient Egypt, though not commonly:

A few examples of

Old Kingdom ... statuary present some adult males—usually priests, functionaries, or low-status workers—as having undergone a vertical slit on the dorsal aspect of the prepuce, although no flesh has been removed.^[57]

It may be performed as a part of traditional customs, such as those in the

Pacific Islands and the Philippines

. In the medical field, it may be performed for as an alternative to circumcision when circumcision is undesired or impractical. It remains a rare surgery and practice overall.

References

1. ^
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2. ^ ^{a b c d e} "Penises, Piercings and Pleasure". 2009-07-23. Archived from the original on 2015-07-09. Retrieved 2010-01-17.
3. ^ Neluis T, Armstrong ML, Young C, Roberts AE, Hogan L, Rinard K (2014). "Prevalence and implications of genital tattoos: A site not forgotten". British Journal of Medical Practitioners. 7 (4).
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   The New York Times
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9. ^ ^{a b c d e f} ISNA's Amicus Brief on Intersex Genital Surgery The Intersex Society of North America, Dated February 7, 1998
10. ^ Karen S Vogt, MD, Michael J Bourgeois, MD, Arlan L Rosenbloom, MD, Mary L Windle, PharmD, George. P Chrousos, MD, FAAP, MACP, MACE, FRCP, Merrily P M Poth, MD, Stephen Kemp, MD, PhD Microphallus: Epidemiology Medscape, Updated August 3, 2011
11. ^ "What's ISNA's position on surgery?". Intersex Society of North America.
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16. ^ ^{a b} Definition of the World Health Organization
17. ^ ^{a b} UNICEF 2013 Archived 2015-04-05 at the Wayback Machine, p. 22: "More than 125 million girls and women alive today have been cut in the 29 countries in Africa and the Middle East where FGM/C is concentrated.

    UNICEF 2013 , p. 121, n. 62: "This estimate [125 million] is derived from weighted averages of FGM/C prevalence among girls aged 0 to 14 and girls and women aged 15 to 49, using the most recently available DHS, MICS and SHHS data (1997–2012) for the 29 countries where FGM/C is concentrated. The number of girls and women who have been cut was calculated using 2011 demographic figures produced by the UN Population Division ... The number of cut women aged 50 and older is based on FGM/C prevalence in women aged 45 to 49."

18. ^ P. Stanley Yoder, Shane Khan, "Numbers of women circumcised in Africa: The Production of a Total", USAID, DHS Working Papers, No. 39, March 2008, pp. 13–14: "Infibulation is practiced largely in countries located in northeastern Africa: Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Somalia, and Sudan. Survey data are available for Sudan, Eritrea, Ethiopia and Djibouti. Sudan alone accounts for about 3.5 million of the women. ... [T]he estimate of the total number of women infibulated in [Djibouti, Somalia, Eritrea, northern Sudan, Ethiopia, Guinea, Mali, Burkina Faso, Senegal, Chad, Nigeria, Cameroon and Tanzania, for women 15–49 years old] comes to 8,245,449, or just over eight million women." Also see Appendix B, Table 2 ("Types of FGC"), p. 19.

    UNICEF 2013 Archived 2015-04-05 at the Wayback Machine, p. 182, identifies "sewn closed" as most common in Djibouti, Eritrea, Somalia for 15–49 age group (survey in 2000 for Sudan was not included), and for daughters, Djibouti, Eritrea, Niger and Somalia. UNICEF statistical profiles on FGM, showing type of FGM: Djibouti Archived 2014-10-30 at the Wayback Machine (December 2013), Eritrea Archived 2014-10-30 at the Wayback Machine (July 2014), Somalia Archived October 30, 2014, at the Wayback Machine (December 2013).

    Gerry Mackie, "Ending Footbinding and Infibulation: A Convention Account" Archived 2019-07-20 at the Wayback Machine, American Sociological Review, 61(6), December 1996 (pp. 999–1017), p. 1002: "Infibulation, the harshest practice, occurs contiguously in Egyptian Nubia, the Sudan, Eritrea, Djibouti and Somalia, also known as Islamic Northeast Africa."

19. ^ ^{a b c d} "Full list". Treaty Office.
20. ^ United Nations General Assembly. "A/RES/48/104 – Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women – UN Documents: Gathering a body of global agreements". www.un-documents.net.
21. ^ nthWORD Magazine. "nthWORD Magazine Interview with Liz Canner, filmmaker of Orgasm, Inc". Nthword.com. Archived from the original on 2010-07-14. Retrieved 2010-11-07.
22. ^ ^{a b c} "Rwandan Women View The Elongation Of Their Labia As Positive". February 15, 2008. Archived from the original on February 18, 2008. Retrieved April 25, 2021.
23. ^ ^{a b c} "Enlarging Your Labia". Sexy Labia. Retrieved April 25, 2021.
24. ^ "Sexual health—a new focus for WHO" (PDF). WHO. 2004. p. 6. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 16, 2008.
25. ^ ^{a b} Bourke, Emily (2009-11-12). "Designer vagina craze worries doctors". Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Archived from the original on November 12, 2012. Retrieved 2007-05-29.
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27. ^ "The Perfect Vagina Documentary". Documentary Heaven. Retrieved October 12, 2022.
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31. ^ Davis, Simone Weil. "Designer Vaginas." Women's Voices, Feminist Visions. Ed. Susan Shaw and Janet Lee. New York: McGraw Hill (2012): 270–77.
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    . It seems likely that in the near future revised recommendations, taking a more positive attitude to circumcision, are likely in many English-speaking countries. What of the future? Current medical advice and public health projects now underway seem to point to a worldwide increase in circumcision rates in the first half of the twenty-first century.
34. ISBN 978-0-07-177971-5. Archived
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35. ISBN 9780702065033
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36. ^ About 0.13% in American neonates; Krill AJ, Palmer LS, Palmer JS (2011). "Complications of circumcision". TheScientificWorldJournal. 11: 2458–2468. doi:10.1100/2011/373829. PMC 3253617. PMID 22235177.
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39. ^ Society, Canadian Paediatric. "Newborn male circumcision | Canadian Paediatric Society". cps.ca. Retrieved 2023-06-05.
40. ^ "Newborn Male Circumcision". American Academy of Pediatrics. 27 August 2012. Archived from the original on 7 November 2017. Retrieved 11 August 2019.
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44. ^ "Preventing HIV Through Safe Voluntary Medical Male Circumcision For Adolescent Boys And Men In Generalized HIV Epidemics". World Health Organization. 2020. Archived from the original on 22 November 2021. Retrieved 24 May 2021.
45. ^ For sources on this, see:
    • Chikutsa A, Maharaj P (July 2015). "Social representations of male circumcision as prophylaxis against HIV/AIDS in Zimbabwe". BMC Public Health. 15 (1): 603.
      PMID 26133368
      . It is now generally accepted in public health spheres that medical male circumcision is efficacious in the prevention of HIV infection.
    • Bell K (2016). Health and Other Unassailable Values: Reconfigurations of Health, Evidence and Ethics. Taylor & Francis. p. 106.
      ISBN 978-1-317-48203-1
      . ...defending the casual relation between male circumcision and reduced HIV transmission has become essentially hegemonic in the academic literature.
    • Merson M, Inrig S (2017). The AIDS Pandemic: Searching for a Global Response.
      ISBN 978-3-319-47133-4
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46. PMID 9370910
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49. ^ Knibbs, Kate (2015-05-14). "The Most Extreme Body Hacks That Actually Change Your Physical Abilities". Gizmodo. Retrieved 2017-08-23.
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51. ^ Nanda, S. "Hijras: An Alternative Sex and Gender Role in India (in Herdt, G. (1996) Third Sex, Third Gender: Beyond Sexual Dimorphism in Culture and History. Zone Books.)
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54. San Jose Mercury News
    . 30 November 1993. Retrieved 27 November 2019.
55. ^ Effron, Lauren; Dooley, Sean. "John Bobbitt's surgeons describe the day they reattached his penis: 'It came to us… in a hot dog bag'". ABC News. Retrieved 2024-04-25.
56. ^ "Meatotomy – BME Encyclopedia". wiki.bme.com. Retrieved 2017-12-13.
57. S2CID 29580193
    . Retrieved 2018-02-06. Hodges draws a strong distinction between the kynodesme and infibulation " Tethering the akroposthion with the kynodesme is frequently confused with preputial infibulation, which had different objectives and was achieved by surgically piercing the prepuce and using the holes so created for the insertion of a metal clasp (fibula) in order to fasten the prepuce shut."

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Genital modification.

• The Geography of Genital Mutilations
• A world without female Genital Mutilation