Geography and ecology of the Everglades
Before drainage, the Everglades, a region of tropical wetlands in southern Florida, were an interwoven mesh of marshes and prairies covering 4,000 square miles (10,000 km2). The Everglades is both a vast watershed that has historically extended from Lake Okeechobee 100 miles (160 km) south to Florida Bay (around one-third of the southern Florida peninsula), and many interconnected ecosystems within a geographic boundary. It is such a unique meeting of water, land, and climate that the use of either singular or plural to refer to the Everglades is appropriate.[1] When Marjory Stoneman Douglas wrote her definitive description of the region in 1947, she used the metaphor "River of Grass" to explain the blending of water and plant life.
Although sawgrass and sloughs are the enduring geographical icons of the Everglades, other ecosystems are just as vital, and the borders marking them are subtle or nonexistent. Pinelands and tropical hardwood hammocks are located throughout the sloughs; the trees, rooted in soil inches above the peat, marl, or water, support a variety of wildlife. The oldest and tallest trees are cypresses, whose roots are specially adapted to grow underwater for months at a time. The Big Cypress Swamp is well known for its 500-year-old cypresses, though cypress domes can appear throughout the Everglades. As the freshwater from Lake Okeechobee makes its way to Florida Bay, it meets saltwater from the Gulf of Mexico; mangrove forests grow in this transitional zone, providing nursery and nesting conditions for many species of birds, fish, and invertebrates. The marine environment of Florida Bay is also considered part of the Everglades because its seagrasses and aquatic life are attracted to the constant discharge of freshwater.
These ecological systems are always changing due to environmental factors. Geographic features such as the Western Flatwoods, Eastern Flatwoods, and the Atlantic Coastal Ridge affect drainage patterns. Geologic elements, climate, and the frequency of storms and fire are formative processes for the Everglades. They help to sustain and transform the ecosystems in the Shark River Valley, Big Cypress Swamp, coastal areas, and mangrove forests. Ecosystems have been described as both fragile and resilient. Minor fluctuations in water levels have far-reaching consequences for many plant and animal species, and the system cycles and pulses with each change.
Shaping processes of ecosystems
At only 5,000 years of age, the Everglades is a young region in geological terms. Its ecosystems are in constant flux as a result of the interplay of three factors: the type and amount of water present, the geology of the region, and the frequency and severity of fires.[2][3]
Water
Water is the dominant element in the Everglades, and it shapes the land, vegetation, and animal life of South Florida. The South Florida climate was once
The Everglades are unique; no other wetland system in the world is nourished primarily from the atmosphere.[5] Before the first attempt at draining the Everglades in 1882, the entire watershed extended from Orlando to Florida Bay comprising the Kissimmee–Lake Okeechobee–Everglades (KLOE) watershed. Kissimmee River outlets flow into Lake Okeechobee, which sits 18 feet (5.5 m) above sea level.[6] Only two seasons exist in the Everglades: wet (May to November) and dry (December to April). Average annual rainfall in the Everglades is approximately 62 inches (160 cm), though fluctuations of precipitation are normal.[7] Droughts, floods, and tropical storms are normal occurrences in the area.[8] When Lake Okeechobee exceeds its water storage capacity during the wet season, it pours slowly over the southern rim and flows for 100 miles (160 km) to Florida Bay. The gradient change is so slight that the river moves only 2 feet (0.61 m) a minute.[9] Sawgrass thrives in this river, dominates freshwater marshes and sloughs, and is the main characteristic of the region.
Severe weather, in the form of
Geology
A vast marshland could only have been formed due to the underlying rock formations in southern Florida.[15] The floor of the Everglades formed between 25 million and 2 million years ago when the Florida peninsula was a shallow sea floor. The peninsula has been covered by sea water at least seven times since the earliest bedrock formation.[15] The rock that makes up the Everglades floor was created as layers of calcium carbonate were compressed by ocean water, making limestone. Fossilized bryozoans and tiny shells, or ooids, make the limestone porous. Water is stored in the rock, sometimes from one year to the next.[16] The length of time that a region in the Everglades remains flooded, called a hydroperiod,[4] determines what particular soils and vegetation are present.
Shorter hydroperiods of three or four months promote the growth of periphyton: algae and other microscopic organisms covered with calcium carbonate crystals.[15] Periphyton is the basic building block of marl, a calcitic mud. In areas with hydroperiods of longer than nine months, peat builds up over hundreds or thousands of years due to many generations of decaying plant matter. Peat and marl are considered nutrient-poor soils that foster the growth of specialized vegetation depending on the length of the regional hydroperiod.
Five types of peat appear in the Everglades system; each type supports a specific type of vegetation, such as sawgrass, tree islands, or custard apple trees.[17] Peat buildup is possible because water prevents oxygen from quickly decomposing plant matter. Once peat buildup reaches the surface, oxygen reacts with the microorganisms to decay the peat rapidly in a process called subsidence. Initial attempts at developing agriculture near Lake Okeechobee were successful, but the nutrients in the peat quickly deteriorated by drying, and were broken down by bacteria in the soil. The dried peat burned or was degraded into carbon dioxide and water by microorganisms. Some homes built near early farms had to restructure their foundations on stilts as the peat deteriorated; other areas lost approximately 8 feet (2.4 m) of soil depth.[18] Between the 1880s and 2005, an estimated 3.4 billion metric tons of soil has been lost in the Everglades due to oxidation. Most of that loss occurs in the Everglades Agricultural Area; the least amount of loss is found in Everglades National Park.[19]
Fire
Fire is another important element in the maintenance of the Everglades. The majority are caused by lightning strikes from thunderstorms during the wet season. Their effects are largely superficial, and serve to foster further plant growth: sawgrass will burn above water, but the roots are preserved. Fire in the sawgrass marshes serves to keep out larger bushes and trees, and releases nutrients from decaying plant matter more efficiently than decomposition.[20] Large burned areas also affect waterflow, since wind and water are undeterred by the eradicated sawgrass; water may flow two to three times faster in recently burned areas.[21] During the wet season only dead plant matter and the tips of plants are burned; however, the effects of fire are much more significant in the dry season, as fire may be fed by organic peat and burn deeply, destroying root systems. The only impediment to the spread of fire in the Everglades is the presence of water. It takes around 225 years for one foot (0.3 m) of peat to develop, but the peat is not as dense as it should be for the 5,000 years of the Everglades' existence. Scientists point to fire as the reason.[3]
Researchers have noted that fires appear in cycles associated with those of the hydroperiods.
Ecosystem characteristics
The Everglades are dominated by sawgrass in water; this is the titular "River of Grass" popularized by Marjory Stoneman Douglas in 1947. This river contains a wide variety of plant and animal life. Early American environmentalist Gifford Pinchot said of the Everglades, "It is a region so different that it hardly seems to belong to the United States. It is full of the most vivid and most interesting life on land, in the air, and in the water. It is a land of strangeness, separate and apart from the common things we all know so well."[22]
The sawgrass grows in prairies or strands, in between channels of water in a shallow river 100 miles (160 km) long and 60 miles (97 km) wide flowing from Lake Okeechobee to Florida Bay. Some authors refer to the sawgrass and water combination as the "true Everglades" or just "the Glades".[23][24] Prior to the first drainage attempts in 1905, the sheetflow, or the wide shallow river starting in Lake Okeechobee, occupied nearly a third of the lower Florida peninsula.[4] Though sawgrass remains the main feature of the Everglades, other ecosystems are scattered among the marshes and prairies, and their borders are sometimes imperceptible.
Sawgrass marsh
Most marshes in the Everglades are dominated by the sedge known as Cladium, or sawgrass in common terminology. The sedge is a three-dimensional v-shaped stalk with upward-pointing teeth. Sawgrass thrives in the slowly moving water, but may die if oxygen is unable to reach its roots and is particularly vulnerable to floods immediately after a fire.[25] Some of the sawgrass can grow up to 6 feet (1.8 m) tall, and directly south of Lake Okeechobee it has grown to 10 feet (3.0 m). Farther south, where the peat is not as rich, it typically grows 4 feet (1.2 m) tall in patches, as opposed to the prairies of the upper glades.[26] The hydroperiod for the marsh is usually nine months but can last longer. In shorter hydroperiods, marl may form instead of peat.[27]
Where sawgrass grows densely, few animals or other plants thrive, although
Freshwater sloughs
Sloughs are channels of free-flowing water in between the sawgrass marshes. Sloughs are deeper than sawgrass marshes, about 3 feet (0.91 m), and may stay flooded for at least 11 months out of the year if not multiple years in a row.
Wet prairie
Two kinds of wet prairies thrive in the Everglades: marl and water-marsh community. Wet prairies are slightly elevated like sawgrass marshes, but contain abundant plant diversity. Marl prairies are located where marl covers limestone that may protrude as pinnacles or erode into solution holes: depressions formed by the same processes that create sinkholes. Solution holes, however, do not meet the water table; they are filled with rain water.[32] The surface is covered only three to seven months of the year, but the water is usually just 4 inches (10 cm) deep.[33] Marl is created by layers of periphyton loosely attached to the limestone, and forms a grey or white crumbly mud when it dries. When flooded, the marl can support a variety of water plants, and dwarf cypresses may grow for hundreds of years though not exceed 10 feet (3.0 m) in height.[34] Solution holes may remain flooded even when the prairies are dry, and they support aquatic invertebrates such as crayfish and snails, as well as larval amphibians which feed young wading birds.[35] Where the predominant soil is peat, a water-marsh community exists. Its hydroperiod is longer than the marl prairie, although its plants are less diverse. These regions tend to be on the border between sloughs and sawgrass marshes.
Alligators have created an ecological niche in wet prairies; they dig at low spots with their claws and snouts and create ponds free of vegetation that remain submerged throughout the dry season. Alligator holes are integral to the survival of aquatic invertebrates, turtles, fish, small mammals, and birds during extended drought periods. Alligators feed upon animals that visit the hole.[36][37]
Tropical hardwood hammock
Islands of trees featuring dense temperate or tropical trees are called tropical hardwood hammocks.[38] They may rise between 1 and 3 feet (0.30 and 0.91 m) above water level in freshwater sloughs, sawgrass prairies, or pineland. These islands illustrate the difficulty of characterizing the climate of the Everglades as tropical or subtropical. Hammocks in the northern portion of the Everglades consist of more temperate plant species, but closer to Florida Bay the trees are tropical and smaller shrubs are more prevalent. Tropical trees like the West Indian mahogany (Swietenia mahagoni) were probably spread by birds carrying seeds from the West Indies.[39]
These hammocks form on slightly elevated areas unharmed by deep peat fires or limestone plateaus rising several inches above the surrounding peat. Hardwood hammocks exhibit a mixture of subtropical and hardwood trees that grow in very dense clumps, such as southern live oak (
Florida strangler figs (Ficus aurea) are common in hammocks, and find particular ease in rooting at the heads of cabbage palms (Sabal palmetto). After taking root into the ground, they build complex frameworks around the host tree, eventually squeezing out light and nutrients, and essentially taking its place.[43] A variety of invertebrates including beetles, ants, spiders, and tree snails support a food chain that includes frogs, owls and other birds of prey, snakes, rodents, bobcats, and raccoons. There are more than 50 varieties of tree snails in the Everglades; the color patterns and designs unique to single islands may be a result of the isolation of certain hammocks.[44]
Tropical hardwood hammocks in the Everglades have been harvested for lumber, particularly by shipbuilders seeking West Indian mahogany and black ironwood (
Bayheads and willowheads
Some hammocks are dominated by types of vegetation that grow in relation to the amount of water or type of soil present. The majority of hardwood hammocks create a thin poor soil covering the limestone called
Flatwoods and the Atlantic Coastal Ridge
The prairies and sloughs of the Everglades system are bordered by two areas of poorly drained sandy soil on both sides of Lake Okeechobee: the Eastern Flatwoods and the Western Flatwoods just north of Big Cypress Swamp. The predominant ecosystem in the Flatwoods is pine forest, but there are also cypress swamps and sloughs in the Eastern Flatwoods.
Pine rockland
Wildlife in pine rockland communities is diverse. In some forests, 15 species of birds can be found. Common among them are the
Before urban development of the South Florida region, pine rocklands covered around 161,660 acres (654.2 km2) in
The Big Cypress
West of the sawgrass prairies and sloughs lies the Big Cypress Swamp, commonly called "The Big Cypress", referring to its size rather than the height or diameter of its trees. It takes up the majority of Collier County; at its most limited measurement, the swamp measures 1,200 square miles (3,100 km2), but its hydrological boundary is nearly twice as large.[55][56] The Big Cypress is slightly elevated at 22 feet (6.7 m) at its highest point and slopes gradually to the coastline for approximately 35 miles (56 km). Because the defining feature of The Big Cypress is the abundance of trees it is considered a swamp, rather than a marsh where grass is the main characteristic.
The basin for The Big Cypress receives on average 55 inches (140 cm) of water in the rainy season.[57] Most of The Big Cypress sits atop a bedrock covered by a thin layer of limestone that contains quartz, creating a sandy soil that hosts a variety of vegetation.[56] The majority of trees are bald cypress (Taxodium distichum) and pond cypresses (Taxodium ascendens). Cypresses are conifers that are uniquely adapted to thrive in flooded conditions, with buttressed trunks and root projections that protrude out of the water, called "knees".[58]
Cypress trees in the area can live for hundreds of years; some giants grow to 130 feet (40 m) and are 500 years old. Still, they may be only seventh- or eighth-generation cypresses. Few massive trees survived the logging operations that took place in the 1930s and 1940s. As a result, much of The Big Cypress is protected by various federal or state agencies that include
Cypress head
Although The Big Cypress is the largest growth of cypress swamps in South Florida, such swamps—as well as portions of sawgrass marshes—can be found near the Atlantic Coastal Ridge and between Lake Okeechobee and the Eastern flatwoods. Hardwood hammocks and pineland are often interspersed with the cypress ecosystem. Much like tree islands that are colloquially referred to as "heads", cypress trees grow in formations that resemble domes, with the tallest and thickest trunks in the center, rooted in the deepest peat. As the peat thins out, cypresses continue to grow, but are smaller and thinner, giving the small forest the appearance of a dome.[60] They also grow in strands, slightly elevated on a plateau of limestone and surrounded on two sides by sloughs.[61] Other hardwood trees can be found in cypress domes, such as red maple (Acer rubrum), swamp bay (Persea palustris), and pop ash (Fraxinus caroliniana). If cypresses are removed, hardwoods take over, and the ecosystem is recategorized as a mixed swamp forest.
Because the cypress domes and strands retain moisture and block out much of the sunlight, plants such as
Mangroves and coastal prairie
Water from Lake Okeechobee and The Big Cypress eventually flows to the ocean. At a transitional zone where fresh water meets salt water,
Mangroves
Three species of mangrove trees exist in the region: red (
The estuaries act as
Mangroves also serve as excellent rookeries for birds. Wading birds, such as
are among the more than 100 species of birds that use Everglades mangrove trees to raise their young.Florida Bay
Because much of the coast and inner estuaries are built by mangroves—and there is no border between the coastal marshes and the bay—the ecosystems in Florida Bay are considered part of the Everglades. More than 800 square miles (2,100 km2) of Florida Bay is protected by Everglades National Park, representing the largest body of water in the park boundaries.[73] There are approximately one hundred keys in Florida Bay, many of which are mangrove forests.[74] Larger islands may be taken over by hardwood hammocks. The outer rims of the Ten Thousand Islands and Cape Sable share characteristics of the intertwining saltwater bays and fresh water marshes.
The fresh water entering Florida Bay from the Everglades creates ideal conditions for vast beds of
Sea grasses stabilize sea beds and protect shorelines from erosion by absorbing energy from waves. Shrimp,
Sea floor patterns of Florida Bay are formed by currents and winds. However, since 1932, sea levels have been rising at a rate of 1 foot (0.30 m) per 100 years.[81] Though mangroves serve to build and stabilize the coastline, seas may be rising more rapidly than the trees are able to build.[82]
Biodiversity
Ecosystems in the Everglades have been described as both fragile and resilient.[83] Author Michael Grunwald wrote about the observations of the Everglades' first American visitors: "If the Grand Canyon was a breathtaking painting, the Everglades was a complex drama, and everything in it had a role."[84] An estimated 11,000 species of seed-bearing plants and 400 species of land or water vertebrates live in the Everglades, but slight variations in water levels affect many organisms and reshape land formations. The health and productivity of any ecosystem relies on the number of species present: the loss of one species weakens the entire ecosystem.[85]
For example, Florida apple snails (, insects, scorpions, and other invertebrates also support a web of animals.
The group of animals most integral to the overall success of Everglades wildlife is freshwater fish. Few places in the Everglades stay submerged from one year to the next, so alligator holes and deep clefts in the limestone are vital to the survival of fish, and the animal community as a whole. Freshwater fish are the main diet of most wading birds, alligators, and otters, and require large areas of open water in order to repopulate. Young amphibians also play an important role in the food chain. Tadpoles spread quickly in isolated areas where fish do not have the time or access to reproduce in numbers necessary to support larger animals. Hundreds of species of amphibians are found in the Everglades, and their availability helps support wildlife during short hydroperiods or in remote locations.[89]
These smaller animals support communities of larger animals, including 70 species of land birds that breed within the Everglades, and 120 water birds, of which 43 breed in the area. Many of these birds go on to migrate through the West Indies and North America.
Although slight changes in water level affect many species, the system as a whole also cycles and pulses with each change. Some transformations to the diversity of plant and animal life are natural, caused by fire or storms, and some are induced by humans, such as urban encroachment, the
Human impact
Development
People have lived in the Everglades region for thousands of years. Within the past 100 years however, they have changed the natural landscape dramatically. Settlement of urban areas in South Florida was facilitated by large drainage projects intended to create more land. The drainage was often implemented without a full understanding of the intricacies of ecosystems and shaping processes of the Everglades.
Invasive species
Humans have also adversely impacted the ecology of the Everglades by introducing numerous invasive species, which may prey on or compete with native species. A spectacular and particularly damaging example of this phenomenon is the recent proliferation of the Burmese python in the Everglades, as well as elsewhere in Florida. First observed in the wild in 1979 and not again until 1995,[95] they have increased alarmingly since 2000.[96] By 2011, decreases of 87.5%, 94.1%, 98.9% and 99.3% in sightings of bobcats, white-tailed deer, opossums and raccoons, respectively, were reported in park road surveys, while rabbits were no longer being seen at all.[96]
Climate change and sea level rise
See also
Notes and references
- ^ Lodge, p. 13.
- ^ U.S. Geological Survey (2004). "Environmental Setting – The Natural System: Watersheds and Coastal Waters (Big Cypress Watershed)". Circular 1134: The South Florida Environment – A Region Under Stress. U.S. Department of the Interior. Retrieved 2008-03-17.
- ^ a b c d McCally, p. 18–21.
- ^ a b c McCally, pp. 9–10.
- ^ Lodge, p.14.
- ^ Lodge, pp. 18–19.
- ^ U.S. Geological Survey (2004). "Environmental Setting – The Natural System: Climate". Circular 1134: The South Florida Environment – A Region Under Stress. U.S. Department of the Interior. Retrieved 2008-03-17.
- ^
Obeysekera, Jayantha; Browder, J.; Hornrung, L.; Harwell, M. (October 1999). "The natural South Florida system I: Climate, geology, and hydrology". Urban Ecosystems. 3 (3/4). Kluwer Academic Publishers: 223–244. S2CID 2526625.
- ^ Lodge, p. 21.
- ^ Hurricane Research Division (2008). "Atlantic hurricane best track". NOAA. Archived from the original on 2008-09-16. Retrieved 2008-05-03.
- ^ Lodge, p. 89.
- ^ Jewell, p. 35.
- ^ Lodge, pp. 89–93.
- ^ Toops, p. 95.
- ^ ISBN 0-9634030-2-8
- ^ McCally, pp. 12–14.
- ^ McCally, pp. 15–17
- ^ Lodge, p. 38.
- ^ SFWMD (2010), p. 6-3.
- ^ a b Lodge, pp. 39–41.
- ^ Schaffraneck, Raymond; Ami L. Riscassi; Nancy B. Rybicki; Alfonso V. Lombana (September 3, 2003). "Fire Effects on Flow in Vegetated Wetlands of the Everglades". U.S. Geological Survey. Retrieved 2008-05-02.
- ^ Grunwald, p. 12.
- ^ George, p. 13.
- ^ Douglas, p. 11.
- ^ Whitney, p. 168.
- ^ Lodge, pp. 25–27.
- ^ Jewell, p. 46.
- ^ Whitney, p.168.
- ^ George, p. 42.
- ^ Lodge, p. 31.
- ^ George, p. 14.
- ^ Whitney, p. 114–115.
- ^ Lodge, p. 29.
- ^ Whitney, p. 164.
- ^ Whitney, p. 163.
- ^ George, pp. 45–46.
- ^ Lodge, p. 35.
- ^ George, p. 30.
- ^ a b Lodge, p. 55.
- ^ Douglas, pp. 48–49.
- ^ George, p. 31.
- ^ Toops, p. 53.
- ^ Lodge, p. 58.
- ^ Toops, p. 57.
- ^ Toops, p. 61.
- ^ George, p. 39.
- ^ Lodge, pp. 45–46.
- ^ McCally, p. 9.
- ^ Jewell, p. 45.
- ^ a b c d e U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service. "South Florida Multi-Species Recovery Plan: Pine rockland Archived 2012-11-11 at the Wayback Machine" (PDF), Retrieved May 3, 2008.
- ^ George, pp. 7–8.
- ^ "Land and Resource Management Projects". DOI science plan in support of ecosystem restoration, preservation, and protection in South Florida. U.S. Geological Survey. April 26, 2007. Retrieved 2008-05-02.
- ^ Lodge, p. 66.
- ^ Lodge, p. 63.
- ^ Lodge, p. 67.
- ^ a b George, p. 26.
- ^ Ripple, p. 16.
- ^ Jewell, p. 43.
- ^ Ripple, pp. 19–20.
- ^ Ripple, p. 26.
- ^ Ripple, pp. 31–32.
- ^ Ripple, p. 28.
- ^ Ripple, pp. 30–38.
- ^ George, p. 19.
- ISBN 978-0-12-026140-6.
- ^ a b Ripple, p. 80.
- ^ Jewell, p. 41.
- ^ Whitney, p. 286.
- ^ "About Florida Bay". Sea Grant Florida. July 16, 2001. Retrieved 2008-06-08.
- ^ Humphreys, Jay; Franz, Shelley; Seaman, Bill (March 1993). "Florida's Estuaries: A Citizen's Guide to Coastal Living and Conservation" (PDF). National Atmosphere and Oceanic Administration and the Florida Department of Community Affairs. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-03-03. Retrieved 2008-06-08.
- ^ Whitney, pp. 288–289.
- ^ Whitney, pp. 295–296.
- ^ "Ecosystems: Marine & Estuarine". National Park Service. July 30, 2007. Retrieved 2008-05-04.
- ^ George, p. 21.
- ^ Whitney, pp. 313–316.
- ^ Griffin, pp. 93–103.
- ^ Whitney, pp. 328–330.
- ^ Jewell, p. 40.
- ^ Toops, p. 88.
- ^ Williams, p. 26.
- ^ Lodge, p. 100.
- ^ Lodge, p. 104.
- ^ a b Toops, p. 92.
- ^ Grunwald, p. 14.
- ^ Whitney, p. 383.
- ^ Whitney, p. 241.
- ^ Lodge, p. 136.
- ^ Lodge, p. 140.
- ^ Lodge, p. 160.
- ^ Lodge, pp. 183–185.
- ^ Lodge, pp. 175–180.
- ISBN 0-9634030-2-8
- ^ "Chapter 1: Background and understanding". The Governor's Commission for a Sustainable South Florida. State of Florida. October 1, 1995. Archived from the original on May 18, 2011. Retrieved 2008-05-23.
- ^ Schmitt, Eric (October 20, 2000). "Everglades Restoration Plan Passes House, With Final Approval Seen", The New York Times, p. 1.
- ^ Mott, Maryann (October 28, 2005). Invasive pythons Squeezing Florida Everglades, National Geographic News. Retrieved on August 1, 2013.
- ^ PMID 22308381.
- ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 2020-02-15.
Bibliography
- Douglas, Marjory (1947). The Everglades: River of Grass. R. Bemis Publishing, Ltd. ISBN 0-912451-44-0
- George, Jean (1972). Everglades Wildguide. National Park Service. Gov. doc #I 29.62:Ev2
- Griffin, John (2002). Archeology of the Everglades. University Press of Florida. ISBN 0-8130-2558-3
- Grunwald, Michael (2006). The Swamp: The Everglades, Florida, and the Politics of Paradise, Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-7432-5107-5
- Jewell, Susan (1993). Exploring Wild South Florida: A Guide to Finding the Natural Areas and Wildlife of the Everglades and Florida Keys, Pineapple Press, Inc. ISBN 1-56164-023-9
- Lodge, Thomas E. (1994). The Everglades Handbook: Understanding the Ecosystem. CRC Press. ISBN 1-56670-614-9
- McCally, David (1999). The Everglades: An Environmental History. University Press of Florida. ISBN 0-8130-2302-5
- Ripple, Jeff (1992). Big Cypress Swamp and the Ten Thousand Islands: Eastern America's Last Great Wilderness, University of South Carolina Press. ISBN 0-87249-842-5
- South Florida Water Management District (2010). Chapter 6: Ecology of the Everglades Protection Area. 2010 South Florida Environmental Report: Volume I—The South Florida Environment. Retrieved on May 26, 2010.
- Toops, Connie (1998). The Florida Everglades. Voyageur Press. ISBN 0-89658-372-4
- Whitney, Ellie et al., eds. (2004) Priceless Florida: Natural Ecosystems and Native Species. Pineapple Press, Inc. ISBN 978-1-56164-309-7
- Williams, John (2002). Florida hurricanes and tropical storms, 1871–2001. University of Florida Press. ISBN 0-8130-2494-3