Geography of Ethiopia
Ethiopia is located in the Horn of Africa. It is bordered by Eritrea to the north, Djibouti and Somalia to the east, Sudan and South Sudan to the west, and Kenya to the south. Ethiopia has a high central plateau, the Abyssinian Highlands (or Ethiopian Highlands) that varies from 1,290 to 3,000 m (4,232 to 9,843 ft) above sea level, with some 25 mountains whose peaks rise over 4,000 meters (13,200ft), the highest being Ras Dashen at 4,543 meters (14,538ft).[1]
Elevation is generally highest just before the point of descent to the Great Rift Valley, which splits the plateau diagonally. A number of rivers cross the plateau; notably the Blue Nile rising from Lake Tana. The plateau gradually slopes to the lowlands of the Sudan on the west and the Somali-inhabited plains to the east. Ethiopia's westernmost locality is Pibor River opposite the Sudanese village of Denjok. Its easternmost locality lies along the eastern border of Dollo Zone opposite Puntland and Galmudug states.
Physical features
Geography
Between the valley of the Upper
About 9° N there is a break in the wall, through which the Awash River flows eastward. The main range at this point trends southwest, while south of the Awash Valley, which is some 1,000 m (3,281 ft) below the level of the mountains, another massif rises in a direct line south. This second range sends a chain (the Ahmar Mountains) eastward toward the Gulf of Aden.[3]
The two chief eastern ranges maintain a parallel course south by west, with a broad upland valley in between – in which valley are a series of lakes – to about
The western wall of the plateau from 6° N to 11° N is well marked and precipitous. North of 11° N the hills turn more to the east and fall more gradually to the East Sudanian savanna plains at their base. On its northern face, the plateau falls in terraces to the level of the eastern Sudan.
The eastern escarpment is the best defined of these outer ranges. It has a mean height of 2,100 to 2,400 m (6,890 to 7,874 ft), and in many places rises almost perpendicularly from the plain. Narrow and deep clefts, through which descend mountain torrents that lose themselves in the sandy soil of the Eritrean coast, afford means of reaching the plateau, or the easier route through the Awash Valley may be chosen. On surmounting this rocky barrier, the traveller finds that the encircling rampart rises little above the normal level of the plateau.[4]
The physical aspect of the highlands is impressive. The northern portion lies mainly between 10° and 15° N. It consists of a huge mass of Archaean rocks with a mean height of 2,000 to 2,200 m (6,562 to 7,218 ft) above sea level, and is flooded in a deep central depression by the waters of Lake Tana. Above the plateau rise several irregular and generally ill-defined mountain ranges which attain altitudes of from 3,700 m (12,139 ft) to just under 4,600 m (15,092 ft). Many of the mountains are of unusual shape.[4]
Characteristic of the country are the enormous
The highest peaks are found in the
The Bale Mountains are separated from the larger part of the Ethiopian highlands by the
Parallel with the eastern escarpment are the heights of
Below 10° N, the southern portion of the highlands has more open tableland than the northern portion and fewer lofty peaks. Though there are a few heights between 3,000 and 4,000 m (9,843 and 13,123 ft), the majority do not exceed 2,400 m (7,874 ft), but the general character of the southern regions is the same as in the north: a much-broken hilly plateau.[4]
East of the highlands towards the
Hydrology
Most of the Ethiopian uplands have a decided slope to the northwest, so that nearly all the large rivers flow in that direction to the
The
In Sudan, the Setit is joined (at 14°20′N 35°51′E / 14.333°N 35.850°E) by the Atbarah, a river formed by several streams which rise in the mountains west and northwest of Lake Tana. The Gash or Mareb, which forms part of the border with Eritrea, is the most northerly of the highland rivers which flow toward the Nile valley. Its headwaters rise on the landward side of the eastern escarpment within 80 km of Annesley Bay on the Red Sea. It reaches the Sudanese plains near Kassala, beyond which place its waters are dissipated in the sandy soil. The Mareb is dry for a great part of the year, but like the Takazze is subject to sudden freshets during the rainy season. Only the left bank of the upper course of the river is in Ethiopian territory.[4] The Abay – that is, the upper course of the Blue Nile – has its source near
In the mountains and plateaus of
The chief river of Ethiopia flowing east is the
After a winding course of about 800 km (497 mi), the Awash River passes (in its lower reaches) through a series of badds (lagoons) to Lake Abbe (or Abhe Bid) on the border with Djibouti and some 100 to 110 km (62 to 68 mi) from the head of the Gulf of Tadjoura. In this lake the Awash river is lost. This remarkable phenomenon is explained by the position of Lake Abbe in the centre of a saline lacustrine depression several hundred meters below sea level. While most of the other lagoons are highly saline, with thick incrustations of salt round their margins, Lake Abbe remains fresh throughout the year, owing to the great body of water discharged into it by the Awash.[5]
Another lacustrine region extends from the Shoan heights southwest to the Samburu (
To the same system belongs the neighbouring Lake Turkana, which is larger than all the rest put together. This lake receives at its northern end the waters of the Omo, which rises in the Shoan highlands and is a perennial river with many affluents. In its course of some 600 km (373 mi) it has a total fall of about 700 m (2,297 ft), from 1,060 m (3,478 ft) at its source to c. 360 m (1,181 ft) at lake level, and is consequently a rapid stream, being broken by the Kokobi and other falls, and navigable only for a short distance above its mouth.[6]
The chief rivers of Somalia, the Shebelle and the Jubba, rise on the southeastern slopes of the Ethiopian escarpment as the Shebelle, the Ganale Doria and the Dawa, and part of their course is through territory belonging to Ethiopia.[6]
There are numerous hot springs in Ethiopia, such as Sodere.
Geology
The East African
The following formations are represented:
- metamorphic
- Igneous
-
- Recent: Aden Volcanic Series
- Tertiary, Cretaceous: Magdalagroup
- Jurassic: Ashangi group[6]
Archaean.– The metamorphic rocks compose the main mass of the tableland, and are exposed in every deep valley in Tigre and along the valley of the Blue Nile. Mica-schists form the prevalent rocks. Hornblende schists also occur and a compact feldspathic rock in the Suris defile. The folia of the schists strike north and south.[6]
Jurassic.– The fossiliferous Antalo Limestones are generally horizontal, but are in places much disturbed when interstratified with Mekelle Dolerite. The fossils are all characteristic Oolite forms and include species of Hemicidaris, Pholadomya, Ceromya, Trigonia and Alaria.[6]
Of more recent date (probably Tertiary) are some igneous rocks, rich in alkalis, occurring in certain localities in southern Ethiopia. Of still more recent date are the basalts and ashes west of Massawa and around Annesley Bay and known as the Aden Volcanic Series. With regard to the older igneous rocks, the enormous amount they have suffered from denudation is a prominent feature. They have been worn into deep and narrow ravines, sometimes to a depth of 1,000 to 1,200 m (3,300 to 3,900 ft).[6]
Climate
The
In the uplands, the air is cool and bracing in summer, and in winter very bleak. The mean range of temperature is between 15 and 25 °C (59 and 77 °F). On the higher mountains the climate is alpine in character. The atmosphere on the plateaus is exceedingly clear, so that objects are easily recognizable at great distances. In addition to the variation in climate dependent on elevation, the year may be divided into three seasons. Winter, or the cold season, lasts from October to February. It is followed by a dry hot period, which about the middle of June gives place to the rainy season. The rain is heaviest in the Tekezé basin in July and August.[6]
In the former provinces of Gojjam and Welega, heavy rains continue till the middle of September. October is occasionally a wet month. There are also spring and winter rains; indeed rain often falls in every month of the year. But the rainy season proper, caused by the southwest monsoon, lasts from June to mid-September, and commencing in the north moves southward. In the region of the headwaters of the Sobat the rains begin earlier and last longer. The rainfall varies from about 750 mm (29.5 in) a year in Tigray and Amhara to over 1,000 mm (39.4 in) in parts of Oromia.[6]
The rainy season is of great importance not only to Ethiopia but to the countries of the Nile valley, as the prosperity of the eastern Sudan and Egypt is largely dependent upon the rainfall. A season of light rain may be sufficient for the needs of Ethiopia, but there is little surplus water to find its way to the Nile; and a shortness of rain means a low Nile, as practically all the flood water of that river is derived from the Ethiopian tributaries.[6]
Climate data for Addis Ababa (1981–2010, extremes 1898–present) | |||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
Record high °C (°F) | 28.8 (83.8) |
30.6 (87.1) |
30.0 (86.0) |
30.2 (86.4) |
29.5 (85.1) |
29.0 (84.2) |
29.1 (84.4) |
28.0 (82.4) |
25.6 (78.1) |
27.1 (80.8) |
29.5 (85.1) |
26.5 (79.7) |
30.6 (87.1) |
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) | 24 (75) |
24 (75) |
25 (77) |
24 (75) |
25 (77) |
23 (73) |
21 (70) |
21 (70) |
22 (72) |
23 (73) |
23 (73) |
23 (73) |
23 (74) |
Daily mean °C (°F) | 16.0 (60.8) |
16.8 (62.2) |
17.8 (64.0) |
17.8 (64.0) |
18.2 (64.8) |
16.8 (62.2) |
15.5 (59.9) |
15.6 (60.1) |
16.1 (61.0) |
16.1 (61.0) |
15.4 (59.7) |
15.2 (59.4) |
16.4 (61.5) |
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) | 8 (46) |
9 (48) |
10 (50) |
11 (52) |
11 (52) |
10 (50) |
10 (50) |
10 (50) |
10 (50) |
9 (48) |
7 (45) |
7 (45) |
9 (49) |
Record low °C (°F) | 0.0 (32.0) |
0.1 (32.2) |
0.0 (32.0) |
2.5 (36.5) |
4.0 (39.2) |
4.2 (39.6) |
5.4 (41.7) |
5.7 (42.3) |
3.9 (39.0) |
0.0 (32.0) |
0.0 (32.0) |
0.0 (32.0) |
0.0 (32.0) |
Average rainfall mm (inches) | 13 (0.5) |
30 (1.2) |
58 (2.3) |
82 (3.2) |
84 (3.3) |
138 (5.4) |
280 (11.0) |
290 (11.4) |
149 (5.9) |
27 (1.1) |
7 (0.3) |
7 (0.3) |
1,165 (45.9) |
Average rainy days (≥ 0.1 mm) | 3 | 5 | 7 | 10 | 10 | 20 | 27 | 26 | 18 | 4 | 1 | 1 | 132 |
Average relative humidity (%)
|
52 | 51 | 53 | 59 | 55 | 68 | 78 | 80 | 75 | 57 | 53 | 53 | 62 |
Mean monthly sunshine hours | 266.6 | 206.2 | 241.8 | 210.0 | 238.7 | 174.0 | 111.6 | 133.3 | 162.0 | 248.0 | 267.0 | 288.3 | 2,547.5 |
Mean daily sunshine hours | 8.6 | 7.3 | 7.8 | 7.0 | 7.7 | 5.8 | 3.6 | 4.3 | 5.4 | 8.0 | 8.9 | 9.3 | 7.0 |
Source 1: World Meteorological Organisation (average high and low, and rainfall)[8]
| |||||||||||||
Source 2: Deutscher Wetterdienst (mean temperatures 1961–1990, humidity 1951–1990, and sun 1985–1998)[9] Meteo Climat (record highs and lows)[10] |
Climate data for Dire Dawa (extremes 1952–present) | |||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
Record high °C (°F) | 38.0 (100.4) |
42.0 (107.6) |
42.0 (107.6) |
37.8 (100.0) |
39.9 (103.8) |
39.5 (103.1) |
38.2 (100.8) |
37.3 (99.1) |
37.4 (99.3) |
38.4 (101.1) |
36.4 (97.5) |
36.0 (96.8) |
42.0 (107.6) |
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) | 28.3 (82.9) |
29.5 (85.1) |
30.9 (87.6) |
30.9 (87.6) |
33.7 (92.7) |
33.7 (92.7) |
32.3 (90.1) |
31.0 (87.8) |
32.3 (90.1) |
32.1 (89.8) |
29.9 (85.8) |
28.3 (82.9) |
31.1 (88.0) |
Daily mean °C (°F) | 22.1 (71.8) |
23.2 (73.8) |
25.2 (77.4) |
26.0 (78.8) |
27.8 (82.0) |
28.5 (83.3) |
27.0 (80.6) |
26.3 (79.3) |
26.6 (79.9) |
25.9 (78.6) |
23.5 (74.3) |
22.3 (72.1) |
25.4 (77.7) |
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) | 14.8 (58.6) |
15.5 (59.9) |
18.2 (64.8) |
19.6 (67.3) |
20.7 (69.3) |
21.6 (70.9) |
20.4 (68.7) |
19.2 (66.6) |
19.6 (67.3) |
18.1 (64.6) |
15.6 (60.1) |
14.4 (57.9) |
18.1 (64.6) |
Record low °C (°F) | 3.0 (37.4) |
6.0 (42.8) |
7.2 (45.0) |
5.0 (41.0) |
10.3 (50.5) |
11.8 (53.2) |
7.3 (45.1) |
6.5 (43.7) |
8.5 (47.3) |
6.0 (42.8) |
7.6 (45.7) |
1.0 (33.8) |
1.0 (33.8) |
Average rainfall mm (inches) | 15 (0.6) |
27 (1.1) |
74 (2.9) |
113 (4.4) |
78 (3.1) |
42 (1.7) |
115 (4.5) |
158 (6.2) |
105 (4.1) |
36 (1.4) |
16 (0.6) |
13 (0.5) |
792 (31.1) |
Average rainy days (≥ 0.1 mm) | 2 | 3 | 7 | 10 | 6 | 5 | 11 | 14 | 10 | 3 | 2 | 1 | 74 |
Average relative humidity (%)
|
55 | 56 | 55 | 55 | 47 | 44 | 50 | 53 | 52 | 45 | 49 | 51 | 51 |
Average dew point °C (°F) | 11 (52) |
12 (54) |
12 (54) |
15 (59) |
15 (59) |
14 (57) |
15 (59) |
16 (61) |
15 (59) |
12 (54) |
12 (54) |
11 (52) |
13 (56) |
Mean monthly sunshine hours | 294.5 | 265.6 | 257.3 | 246.0 | 244.9 | 204.0 | 220.1 | 244.9 | 234.0 | 248.0 | 282.0 | 300.7 | 3,042 |
Mean daily sunshine hours | 9.5 | 9.4 | 8.3 | 8.2 | 7.9 | 6.8 | 7.1 | 7.9 | 7.8 | 8.0 | 9.4 | 9.7 | 8.3 |
Source 1: World Meteorological Organisation (rainfall 1981–2010)[12]
| |||||||||||||
Source 2: Meteo Climat (record highs and lows),[13] Time and Date (dewpoints, 2005-2015)[14] |
Climate data for Mek'ele | |||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) | 23 (73) |
24 (75) |
25 (77) |
26 (79) |
27 (81) |
27 (81) |
27 (80) |
23 (73) |
25 (77) |
24 (75) |
23 (73) |
22 (72) |
24.3 (75.8) |
Daily mean °C (°F) | 19.5 (67.1) |
20.5 (68.9) |
21.5 (70.7) |
22.5 (72.5) |
23.5 (74.3) |
23.5 (74.3) |
20.5 (68.9) |
20.0 (68.0) |
21.5 (70.7) |
20.5 (68.9) |
19.5 (67.1) |
18.5 (65.3) |
20.9 (69.7) |
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) | 16 (61) |
17 (63) |
18 (64) |
19 (66) |
20 (68) |
20 (68) |
18 (64) |
17 (63) |
18 (64) |
17 (63) |
16 (61) |
15 (59) |
17.6 (63.7) |
Average rainfall mm (inches) | 36 (1.4) |
10 (0.4) |
25 (1) |
46 (1.8) |
36 (1.4) |
30 (1.2) |
200 (7.9) |
220 (8.5) |
36 (1.4) |
10 (0.4) |
30 (1.2) |
41 (1.6) |
720 (28.2) |
Source: Weatherbase[15] |
Climate data for Dallol (1960-1966) | |||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
Record high °C (°F) | 39 (102) |
42 (108) |
48 (118) |
46 (115) |
49 (120) |
48 (119) |
49 (121) |
48 (119) |
48 (119) |
46 (115) |
44 (111) |
41 (106) |
49 (121) |
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) | 36.1 (97.0) |
36.1 (97.0) |
38.9 (102.0) |
40.6 (105.1) |
44.4 (111.9) |
46.7 (116.1) |
45.6 (114.1) |
45.0 (113.0) |
42.8 (109.0) |
41.7 (107.1) |
39.4 (102.9) |
36.7 (98.1) |
41.2 (106.1) |
Daily mean °C (°F) | 30.3 (86.5) |
30.5 (86.9) |
32.5 (90.5) |
33.9 (93.0) |
36.4 (97.5) |
38.6 (101.5) |
38.7 (101.7) |
37.6 (99.7) |
37.3 (99.1) |
35.6 (96.1) |
33.2 (91.8) |
30.8 (87.4) |
34.6 (94.3) |
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) | 24.6 (76.3) |
24.6 (76.3) |
26.0 (78.8) |
27.1 (80.8) |
28.5 (83.3) |
30.4 (86.8) |
31.8 (89.2) |
31.1 (88.0) |
31.6 (88.8) |
29.6 (85.3) |
27.1 (80.8) |
25.7 (78.3) |
28.2 (82.7) |
Record low °C (°F) | 22 (72) |
22 (72) |
21 (70) |
21 (70) |
23 (73) |
25 (77) |
24 (75) |
24 (75) |
27 (81) |
26 (79) |
24 (75) |
24 (75) |
21 (70) |
Source: [16][17] |
Flora and fauna
Flora
As in a day's journey the traveller may pass from tropical to almost Alpine conditions of climate, so great also is the range of the flora and fauna. In the valleys and lowlands the vegetation is dense, but the general appearance of the plateaus is of a comparatively bare country with trees and bushes thinly scattered over it. The glens and ravines on the hillside are often thickly wooded, and offer a delightful contrast to the open downs.[6]
These conditions are particularly characteristic of the northern regions; in the south the vegetation on the uplands is more luxuriant. Among the many varieties of trees and plants found are the date palm,
Many kinds of
Fauna
In addition to the domestic animals enumerated below the fauna is very varied. Elephant can be found in certain low-lying districts, especially in the Sobat valley. The hippopotamus and crocodile inhabit the larger rivers flowing west, but are not found in the Hawash, in which, however, otters of large size are plentiful. Lions abound in the low countries. In central Ethiopia the lion is no longer found except occasionally in the river valleys.[19]
Among the varieties are the greater and lesser
. They range from the tropical lowlands to heights of 3,000 m (9,843 ft).Numerous
Among insects the most numerous and useful is the bee, honey everywhere constituting an important part of the food of the inhabitants. Of an opposite class is the locust. There are thousands of varieties of butterflies and other insects. Snakes are not numerous, but several species are venomous.[19]
Natural resources and land use
Ethiopia has small reserves of gold, platinum, copper, potash, and natural gas.[20] It has extensive hydropower potential.[20]
Of the total land area, about 20 percent is under cultivation, although the amount of potentially arable land is larger.
Environmental issues
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (June 2008) |
Disputed border
Eritrea
This section needs to be updated. The reason given is: 2018 Eritrea–Ethiopia summit. (November 2022) |
The border between Ethiopia and Eritrea has never been precisely demarcated.[20] Between 1998 and 2000, the two countries fought a war over the issue, which involves quite small enclaves along the northern segment of their border, including the tiny village of Badme and the enclave of the Irob people.[20] An international boundary commission delimited the border in 2002.[20]
Although both nations agreed to accept its decision, Ethiopia has refused to accept the commission's findings in full, much to the consternation of the Eritrean government.[20]
Somalia
The central section of Ethiopia's border with Somalia also has never been fully demarcated, and is only provisional.
Questions remain about the precise location of small parcels along the border with Sudan as well.[20]
Statistics
- Location
- Eastern Africa, west of Somalia
- Geographic coordinates
- 8°00′N 38°00′E / 8.000°N 38.000°E
- Map references
- Africa
- Area
-
- Total: 1,127,127 km²
- Land: 1,119,683 km²
- Water: 7,444 km²
- Land boundaries
- Coastline
- 0 km (landlocked):
- Climate
- Tropical monsoon with wide topographic-induced variation
- Terrain
- High plateau with central mountain range divided by Great Rift Valley
- Elevation extremes
-
- Lowest point: Danakil, −125 m
- Highest point: Ras Dashen, 4,533 m
- Lowest point:
- Natural resources
- Small reserves of gold, platinum, copper, potash, natural gas, hydropower
- Land use
-
- Arable land: 15.35%
- Permanent crops: 1.14%
- Other: 83.51% (2012 est.)
- Irrigated land
- 2,896 km² (2003)
- Total renewable water resources
- 122 km3 (2011)
- Freshwater withdrawal (domestic/industrial/agricultural)
-
- total: 5.56 km3/yr (13%/1%/86%)
- per capita: 80.5 m3/yr (2005)
- Natural hazards
- Geologically active Great Rift Valley susceptible to earthquakes, volcanic eruptions; frequent droughts
- Environment – current issues
- Deforestation; overgrazing; soil erosion; desertification; water shortages in some areas from water-intensive farming and poor management
- Environment – international agreements
-
- Party to: Ozone Layer Protection
- Signed, but not ratified: Nuclear Test Ban
- Party to:
- Geography – note
- Landlocked– entire coastline along the Red Sea was lost with the de jure independence of Eritrea on 24 May 1993
See also
- Ethiopia
- Extreme points of Ethiopia
- History of Ethiopia
- Index of Ethiopia-related articles
- List of lakes in Ethiopia
- List of mountains in Ethiopia
- List of rivers of Ethiopia
- List of volcanoes in Ethiopia
- Ilemi Triangle
- Mandera triangle
References
- ^ "Overview About Ethiopia". Embassy of Ethiopia in the UK. 25 January 2019. Retrieved 11 March 2023.
- ^ Cana 1911, p. 83.
- ^ Cana 1911, pp. 83–84.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Cana 1911, p. 84.
- ^ Cana 1911, pp. 84–85.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Cana 1911, p. 85.
- ^ "Nasa Photo journal".
- ^ "World Weather Information Service – Addis Ababa". World Meteorological Organisation. Archived from the original on 22 October 2013. Retrieved 31 March 2019.
- ^ "Klimatafel von Addis Abeba (Adis Ababa) / Äthiopien" (PDF). Baseline climate means (1961–1990) from stations all over the world (in German). Deutscher Wetterdienst. Retrieved 31 March 2019.
- ^ "Station Addis Abeba" (in French). Météo Climat. Retrieved 31 March 2019.
- ^ "Klimatafel von Dire Dawa (Diredaua), Provinz Harar / Äthiopien" (PDF). Baseline climate means (1961–1990) from stations all over the world (in German). Deutscher Wetterdienst. Retrieved 31 March 2019.
- ^ "World Weather Information Service – Dire Dawa". World Meteorological Organisation. Archived from the original on 23 October 2013. Retrieved 31 March 2019.
- ^ "Station Diredawa" (in French). Météo Climat. Retrieved 31 March 2019.
- ^ "Climate & Weather Averages in Dire Dawa, Ethiopia". Time and Date. Retrieved 11 January 2022.
- ^ "Weatherbase.com". Weatherbase. 2018. Retrieved on October 30, 2018.
- ^ D.E. Pedgley, "Air Temperature at Dallol, Ethiopia," Meteorological Magazine v.96 (1967): 265-271
- ^ "Allana Potash Corp, Ethiopia Project" (PDF). Environmental Resources Management. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 November 2015. Retrieved 11 August 2014.
- ^ Cana 1911, pp. 85–86.
- ^ a b c d e Cana 1911, p. 86.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Country study – Library of Congress (PDF)
- ^ Area Handbook for Somalia - Volume 550 , Irving Kaplan · 1977 , PAGE 22
- public domain: Cana, Frank Richardson (1911). "Abyssinia". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 1 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 83–85. This article incorporates text from a publication now in the
- This article incorporates public domain material from The World Factbook. CIA.
External links
- Maps of Ethiopia – Perry–Castañeda Library Map Collection, University of Texas at Austin
- The soil maps of Ethiopia, EuDASM
- Ethiopia. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.
- The mapping of Ethiopia Ethiopia-United States Mapping Missionweb site
- ETHIOPIA TOPOGRAPHIC MAPS Archived 18 February 2012 at the East View Cartographicweb site
- Ethiopia's government mapping agency, Ethiopian Mapping Authorityweb site