George III
George III (George William Frederick; 4 June 1738 – 29 January 1820) was
George was born during the reign of his paternal grandfather,
In the later part of his life, George had recurrent and eventually permanent
Early life
George was born in
George grew into a healthy, reserved and shy child. The family moved to
Apart from chemistry and physics, his lessons included astronomy, mathematics, French, Latin, history, music, geography, commerce, agriculture and constitutional law, along with sporting and social accomplishments such as dancing, fencing and riding. His religious education was wholly
King George II disliked Prince Frederick and took little interest in his grandchildren. However, in 1751, Frederick died unexpectedly from a lung injury at the age of 44, and his son George became heir apparent to the throne and inherited his father's title of Duke of Edinburgh. The King now took more interest in his grandson and created him Prince of Wales three weeks later.[10][11]
In the spring of 1756, as George approached his eighteenth birthday, the King offered him a grand establishment at
Accession and marriage
In 1759, George was smitten with
The following year, at the age of 22, George succeeded to the throne when his grandfather George II died suddenly on 25 October 1760, at age 76. The search for a suitable wife intensified: after giving consideration to a number of
The King and Queen had 15 children—nine sons and six daughters. In 1762, George purchased Buckingham House (on the site now occupied by Buckingham Palace) for use as a family retreat.[20] His other residences were Kew Palace and Windsor Castle. St James's Palace was retained for official use. He did not travel extensively and spent his entire life in southern England. In the 1790s, the King and his family took holidays at Weymouth, Dorset,[21] which he thus popularised as one of the first seaside resorts in England.[22]
Early reign
Early regnal years
George, in his accession speech to Parliament, proclaimed: "Born and educated in this country, I glory in the name of Britain."
On his accession, the Crown lands produced relatively little income; most revenue was generated through taxes and excise duties. George surrendered the Crown Estate to Parliamentary control in return for a civil list annuity for the support of his household and the expenses of civil government.[28] Claims that he used the income to reward supporters with bribes and gifts[29] are disputed by historians who say such claims "rest on nothing but falsehoods put out by disgruntled opposition".[30] Debts amounting to over £3 million over the course of George's reign were paid by Parliament, and the civil list annuity was increased from time to time.[31] He aided the Royal Academy of Arts with large grants from his private funds,[32] and may have donated more than half of his personal income to charity.[33] Of his art collection, the two most notable purchases are Johannes Vermeer's Lady at the Virginals and a set of Canalettos, but it is as a collector of books that he is best remembered.[34] The King's Library was open and available to scholars and was the foundation of a new national library.[35]
Legislation and politics
In May 1762, the incumbent Whig government of Thomas Pelham-Holles, 1st Duke of Newcastle, was replaced with one led by Lord Bute, a Scottish Tory. Bute's opponents worked against him by spreading the calumny that he was having an affair with the King's mother, and by exploiting anti-Scottish sentiment amongst the English.[36] John Wilkes, a member of parliament, published The North Briton, which was both inflammatory and defamatory in its condemnation of Bute and the government. Wilkes was eventually arrested for seditious libel but he fled to France to escape punishment; he was expelled from the House of Commons and found guilty in absentia of blasphemy and libel.[37] In 1763, after concluding the Peace of Paris which ended the war, Lord Bute resigned, allowing the Whigs under George Grenville to return to power. Britain received enormous concessions, including West Florida. Britain restored to France lucrative slave-sugar islands in the West Indies, including Guadeloupe and Martinique. France ceded Canada to Britain, in addition to all land between the Allegheny Mountains and the Mississippi River, except New Orleans, which was ceded to Spain.[38]
Later that year, the Royal Proclamation of 1763 placed a limit upon the westward expansion of the American colonies and created an Indian reserve. The Proclamation aimed to divert colonial expansion to the north (to Nova Scotia) and to the south (Florida), and protect the British fur trade with the Indians.[39] The Proclamation Line did not bother the majority of settled farmers, but it was unpopular with a vocal minority. This discontent ultimately contributed to conflict between the colonists and the British government.[40] With the American colonists generally unburdened by British taxes, the government thought it appropriate for them to pay towards the defence of the colonies against native uprisings and the possibility of French incursions.[f]
The central issue for the colonists was not the amount of taxes but whether Parliament could levy a tax without American approval, for there were no American seats in Parliament.[43] The Americans protested that like all Englishmen they had rights to "no taxation without representation". In 1765, Grenville introduced the Stamp Act, which levied a stamp duty on every document in the British colonies in North America. Since newspapers were printed on stamped paper, those most affected by the introduction of the duty were the most effective at producing propaganda opposing the tax.[44]
Meanwhile, George had become exasperated at Grenville's attempts to reduce the King's prerogatives, and tried, unsuccessfully, to persuade
Lord Rockingham, with the support of Pitt and the King, repealed Grenville's unpopular Stamp Act. Rockingham's government was weak, and he was replaced as prime minister in 1766 by Pitt, whom George created
Family issues and discontent in America
George was deeply devout and spent hours in prayer,[50] but his piety was not shared by his brothers. George was appalled by what he saw as their loose morals. In 1770, his brother Prince Henry, Duke of Cumberland and Strathearn, was exposed as an adulterer. The following year, Henry married a young widow, Anne Horton. The King considered her inappropriate as a royal bride: she was from a lower social class and German law barred any children of the couple from the Hanoverian succession.[51]
George insisted on a new law that essentially forbade members of the royal family from legally marrying without the consent of the sovereign. The subsequent bill was unpopular in Parliament, including among George's own ministers, but passed as the
Lord North's government was chiefly concerned with discontent in America. To assuage American opinion most of the custom duties were withdrawn, except for the tea duty, which in George's words was "one tax to keep up the right [to levy taxes]".[52] In 1773, the tea ships moored in Boston Harbor were boarded by colonists and the tea was thrown overboard, an event that became known as the Boston Tea Party. In Britain, opinion hardened against the colonists, with Chatham now agreeing with North that the destruction of the tea was "certainly criminal".[53]
With the clear support of Parliament, Lord North introduced measures, which were called the
American War of Independence
The
The colonies declared their independence in July 1776, listing twenty-seven grievances against the British king and legislature while asking the support of the populace. Among George's other offenses, the declaration charged, "He has abdicated Government here ... He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burnt our towns, and destroyed the lives of our people." The gilded equestrian statue of the King in New York was pulled down.[59] The British captured the city in 1776 but lost Boston, and the grand strategic plan of invading from Canada and cutting off New England failed with the surrender of British Lieutenant-General John Burgoyne following the battles of Saratoga.[60]
Prime Minister
George III is often accused of obstinately trying to keep Great Britain at war with the rebels, despite the opinions of his own ministers.
With the setbacks in America, Lord North asked to transfer power to
During the summer of 1779, a combined French-Spanish naval fleet threatened to invade England and transport 31,000 French troops across the English Channel. George III said that Britain was confronted by the "most serious crisis the nation ever knew". In August, 66 warships entered the English channel, but sickness, hunger, and adverse winds forced the French-Spanish armada to withdraw, ending the invasion threat.[73]
In late 1779, George III advocated sending more British warships and troops across the Atlantic to the West Indies. He boldly said: "We must risk something, otherwise we will only vegetate in this war. I own I wish either with spirit to get through it, or with a crash be ruined." In January 1780, 7,000 British troops under General Sir
As late as the
John Adams was appointed American minister to London in 1785, by which time George had become resigned to the new relationship between his country and the former colonies. He told Adams, "I was the last to consent to the separation; but the separation having been made and having become inevitable, I have always said, as I say now, that I would be the first to meet the friendship of the United States as an independent power."[81]
Mid reign
Government
With the collapse of Lord North's ministry in 1782, the Whig Lord Rockingham became prime minister for the second time, but died within months. The King then appointed
The King disliked Fox intensely, for his politics as well as his character: he thought Fox unprincipled and a bad influence on the Prince of Wales.[82] George III was distressed at having to appoint ministers not of his liking, but the Portland ministry quickly built up a majority in the House of Commons, and could not be displaced easily. He was further dismayed when the government introduced the India Bill, which proposed to reform the government of India by transferring political power from the East India Company to Parliamentary commissioners.[83] Although George actually favoured greater control over the company, the proposed commissioners were all political allies of Fox.[84] Immediately after the House of Commons passed it, George authorised Lord Temple to inform the House of Lords that he would regard any peer who voted for the bill as his enemy. The bill was rejected by the Lords; three days later, the Portland ministry was dismissed, and William Pitt the Younger was appointed prime minister, with Temple as his secretary of state. On 17 December 1783, Parliament voted in favour of a motion condemning the influence of the monarch in parliamentary voting as a "high crime" and Temple was forced to resign. Temple's departure destabilised the government, and three months later the government lost its majority and Parliament was dissolved; the subsequent election gave Pitt a firm mandate.[8]
Pitt's appointment was a great victory for George. It proved that the King could appoint prime ministers on the basis of his own interpretation of the public mood without having to follow the choice of the current majority in the House of Commons. Throughout Pitt's ministry, George supported many of Pitt's political aims and created new peers at an unprecedented rate to increase the number of Pitt's supporters in the House of Lords.[85] During and after Pitt's ministry, George was extremely popular in Britain.[86] The British people admired him for his piety and for remaining faithful to his wife.[87] He was fond of his children and was devastated at the death of two of his sons in infancy, in 1782 and 1783 respectively.[88] Nevertheless, he set his children a strict regimen. They were expected to attend rigorous lessons from seven in the morning and to lead lives of religious observance and virtue.[89] When his children strayed from George's principles of righteousness, as his sons did as young adults, he was dismayed and disappointed.[90]
Illness
By this time, George's health was deteriorating. He had a mental illness characterised by acute mania. Until the mid-20th century, the King's illness was generally considered to be psychological. In 1966, a study by Ida Macalpine and Richard Hunter suggested that the illness was physiological, caused by the liver disorder, porphyria.[91] Although meeting with some contemporary opposition,[92] the view gained widespread scholarly acceptance.[93] A study of samples of George's hair published in 2005 revealed high levels of arsenic, a cause of metabolic blood disorders and thus a possible trigger for porphyria. The source of the arsenic is not known, but it could have been a component of medicines or cosmetics.[94] The theory was also established in the public mind through influential dramatisations, such as Alan Bennett's play The Madness of George III, and in Nicholas Hytner's subsequent film. From 2010 this view has been increasingly challenged, and Macalpine and Hunter's study criticised.[95][96][97] Recent scholarship discounts the porphyria theory and contends that George's illness was psychiatric, most probably bipolar disorder.[98]
George may have had a brief episode of disease in 1765, and a longer episode began in the summer of 1788. At the end of the parliamentary session, he went to
In the reconvened Parliament, Fox and Pitt wrangled over the terms of a regency during the King's incapacity. While both agreed that it would be most reasonable for the Prince of Wales to act as regent, Fox suggested, to Pitt's consternation, that it was the Prince's absolute right to act on his ill father's behalf with full powers. Pitt, fearing he would be removed from office if the Prince of Wales were empowered, argued that it was for Parliament to nominate a regent, and wanted to restrict the regent's authority.[104] In February 1789, the Regency Bill, authorising the Prince of Wales to act as regent, was introduced and passed in the House of Commons, but before the House of Lords could pass the bill, George recovered.[105]
Later reign
War in Europe
After George's recovery, his popularity, and that of Pitt, continued to increase at the expense of Fox and the Prince of Wales.[106] His humane and understanding treatment of two insane assailants, Margaret Nicholson in 1786 and John Frith in 1790, contributed to his popularity.[107] James Hadfield's failed attempt to shoot George in the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane, on 15 May 1800 was not political in origin but motivated by the apocalyptic delusions of Hadfield and Bannister Truelock. George seemed unperturbed by the incident, so much so that he fell asleep in the interval.[108]
The
A brief lull in hostilities allowed Pitt to concentrate effort on Ireland, where there had been an uprising and attempted French landing in 1798.
George did not consider the peace with France as real; in his view it was an "experiment".
In 1804, George's recurrent illness returned; after his recovery, Addington resigned and Pitt regained power. Pitt sought to appoint Fox to his ministry, but George refused.
Final years
In late 1810, at the height of his popularity,
Prime Minister Spencer Perceval was
He died of
Slavery
Over the course of George's reign, a coalition of
On 7 November 1775, during the American War of Independence,
Between 1791 and 1800, almost 400,000 Africans were shipped to the Americas, by 1,340 slaving voyages, mounted from British ports, including
Legacy
George was succeeded by two of his sons, George IV and William IV in turn, who both died without surviving legitimate children, leaving the throne to Victoria, the only legitimate child of his fourth son Prince Edward.
George III lived for 81 years and 239 days, and reigned for 59 years and 96 days: both his life and his reign were longer than those of any of his predecessors and subsequent kings; only queens Victoria and Elizabeth II lived and reigned longer.
George III was dubbed "Farmer George" by satirists, at first to mock his interest in mundane matters rather than politics, but later to portray him as a man of the people, contrasting his homely thrift with his son's grandiosity.
George III hoped that "the tongue of malice may not paint my intentions in those colours she admires, nor the sycophant extoll me beyond what I deserve"[146] but, in the popular mind, George III has been both demonised and praised. While very popular at the start of his reign, by the mid-1770s George had lost the loyalty of revolutionary American colonists,[147] though it has been estimated that as many as half of the colonists remained loyal.[148] The grievances in the United States Declaration of Independence were presented as "repeated injuries and usurpations" that he had committed to establish an "absolute Tyranny" over the colonies. The declaration's wording has contributed to the American public's perception of George as a tyrant. Contemporary accounts of George III's life fall into two camps: one demonstrating "attitudes dominant in the latter part of the reign, when the King had become a revered symbol of national resistance to French ideas and French power", while the other "derived their views of the King from the bitter partisan strife of the first two decades of the reign, and they expressed in their works the views of the opposition".[149]
Building on the latter of these two assessments, British historians of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, such as Trevelyan and Erskine May, promoted hostile interpretations of George III's life. However, in the mid-twentieth century the work of Lewis Namier, who thought George was "much maligned", started a re-evaluation of the man and his reign.[150] Scholars of the later twentieth century, such as Butterfield and Pares, and Macalpine and Hunter,[151] are inclined to treat George sympathetically, seeing him as a victim of circumstance and illness. Butterfield rejected the arguments of his Victorian predecessors with withering disdain: "Erskine May must be a good example of the way in which an historian may fall into error through an excess of brilliance. His capacity for synthesis, and his ability to dovetail the various parts of the evidence ... carried him into a more profound and complicated elaboration of error than some of his more pedestrian predecessors ... he inserted a doctrinal element into his history which, granted his original aberrations, was calculated to project the lines of his error, carrying his work still further from centrality or truth."[152] In pursuing war with the American colonists, George III believed he was defending the right of an elected Parliament to levy taxes, rather than seeking to expand his own power or prerogatives.[153] In the opinion of modern scholars, during the long reign of George III, the monarchy continued to lose its political power and grew as the embodiment of national morality.[8]
Titles, styles, honours and arms
Titles and styles
- 4 June 1738 – 31 March 1751: His Royal Highness Prince George[154]
- 31 March 1751 – 20 April 1751: His Royal Highness The Duke of Edinburgh
- 20 April 1751 – 25 October 1760: His Royal Highness The Prince of Wales
- 25 October 1760 – 29 January 1820: His Majesty The King
In Great Britain, George III used the official
In Germany, he was "Duke of Brunswick and Lüneburg, Arch-Treasurer and Prince-elector of the Holy Roman Empire" (Herzog von Braunschweig und Lüneburg, Erzschatzmeister und Kurfürst des Heiligen Römischen Reiches[156]) until the end of the empire in 1806. He then continued as duke until the Congress of Vienna declared him "King of Hanover" in 1814.[155]
Honours
- Great Britain: Royal Knight of the Garter, 22 June 1749[157]
- Most Illustrious Order of St. Patrick, 5 February 1783[158]
Arms
Before his succession, George was granted the
From his succession until 1800, George bore the royal arms:
Following the Acts of Union 1800, the royal arms were amended, dropping the French quartering. They became: Quarterly, I and IV England; II Scotland; III Ireland; overall an escutcheon of Hanover surmounted by an electoral bonnet.[162] In 1816, after the Electorate of Hanover became a kingdom, the electoral bonnet was changed to a crown.[163]
-
Coat of arms from 1749 to 1751
-
Coat of arms from 1751 to 1760 as Prince of Wales
-
Coat of arms used from 1760 to 1801 as King of Great Britain
-
Coat of arms used from 1801 to 1816 as King of the United Kingdom
-
Coat of arms used from 1816 until death, also as King of Hanover
Issue
British Royalty |
House of Hanover |
---|
George III |
|
Name | Birth | Death | Notes[164] |
---|---|---|---|
George IV | 12 August 1762 | 26 June 1830 | Prince of Wales 1762–1820; married 1795, Princess Caroline of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel; had one daughter: Princess Charlotte
|
Prince Frederick, Duke of York and Albany | 16 August 1763 | 5 January 1827 | Married 1791, Princess Frederica of Prussia ; no issue
|
William IV | 21 August 1765 | 20 June 1837 | Duke of Clarence and St Andrews; married 1818, Princess Adelaide of Saxe-Meiningen; no surviving legitimate issue, but had illegitimate children with Dorothea Jordan
|
Charlotte, Princess Royal | 29 September 1766 | 6 October 1828 | Married 1797, King Frederick of Württemberg ; no surviving issue
|
Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn | 2 November 1767 | 23 January 1820 | Married 1818, Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld; had one daughter: Queen Victoria |
Princess Augusta Sophia |
8 November 1768 | 22 September 1840 | Never married, no issue |
Princess Elizabeth | 22 May 1770 | 10 January 1840 | Married 1818, Frederick VI, Landgrave of Hesse-Homburg; no issue |
Ernest Augustus, King of Hanover | 5 June 1771 | 18 November 1851 | Duke of Cumberland and Teviotdale 1799–1851; married 1815, Princess Friederike of Mecklenburg-Strelitz; had one son: George V of Hanover |
Prince Augustus Frederick, Duke of Sussex | 27 January 1773 | 21 April 1843 | (1) Married 1793, in contravention of the Duchess of Inverness in her own right); no issue
|
Prince Adolphus, Duke of Cambridge | 24 February 1774 | 8 July 1850 | Married 1818, Princess Augusta of Hesse-Kassel; had issue |
Princess Mary | 25 April 1776 | 30 April 1857 | Married 1816, Prince William Frederick, Duke of Gloucester and Edinburgh; no issue |
Princess Sophia | 3 November 1777 | 27 May 1848 | Never married, no issue |
Prince Octavius |
23 February 1779 | 3 May 1783 | Died in childhood |
Prince Alfred | 22 September 1780 | 20 August 1782 | Died in childhood |
Princess Amelia | 7 August 1783 | 2 November 1810 | Never married, no issue |
Ancestry
Ancestors of George III Charles William, Prince of Anhalt-Zerbst | |||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
7. Princess Magdalena Augusta of Anhalt-Zerbst | |||||||||||||
15. Princess Sophia of Saxe-Halle | |||||||||||||
See also
Notes
- ^ King of the United Kingdom from 1 January 1801, after the Acts of Union 1800
- ^ King from 12 October 1814.
- ^ New Style Gregorian calendar. George was born on 24 May in the Old Style Julian calendarused in Great Britain until 1752.
- Quaker, on 17 April 1759, prior to his marriage to Charlotte, and to have had at least one child by her. However, Lightfoot had married Isaac Axford in 1753, and had died in or before 1759, so there could have been no legal marriage or children. The jury at the 1866 trial of Lavinia Ryves, the daughter of imposter Olivia Serres who pretended to be "Princess Olive of Cumberland", unanimously found that a supposed marriage certificate produced by Ryves was a forgery.[19]
- ^ For example, the letters of Horace Walpole written at the time of the accession defended George but Walpole's later memoirs were hostile.[26]
- ^ An American taxpayer would pay a maximum of sixpence a year, compared to an average of twenty-five shillings (50 times as much) in England.[41] In 1763, the total revenue from America amounted to about £1 800, while the estimated annual cost of the military in America was put at £225 000. By 1767, it had risen to £400 000.[42]
References
- ^ a b c "George III". Official website of the British monarchy. Royal Household. 31 December 2015. Retrieved 18 April 2016.
- ^ Brooke, p. 314; Fraser, p. 277.
- ^ Hibbert, p. 8.
- ^ The Third Register Book of the Parish of St James in the Liberty of Westminster For Births & Baptisms. 1723–1741. 24 May 1738.
- ^ "No. 7712". The London Gazette. 20 June 1738. p. 2.
- ^ Brooke, pp. 23–41.
- ^ a b Brooke, pp. 42–44, 55.
- ^ doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/10540. Retrieved 29 October 2008. (Subscription or UK public library membershiprequired.) (Subscription required).
- ^ Sedgwick, pp. ix–x.
- ^ "No. 9050". The London Gazette. 16 April 1751. p. 1.
- ^ Hibbert, pp. 3–15.
- ^ Brooke, pp. 51–52; Hibbert, pp. 24–25.
- . Retrieved 17 September 2008 (Subscription required): "George III adopted the moral standards she tried to teach."
- ^ Ayling, p. 33.
- ^ Ayling, p. 54; Brooke, pp. 71–72.
- ^ Ayling, pp. 36–37; Brooke, p. 49; Hibbert, p. 31.
- ^ Benjamin, p. 62.
- ISBN 978-0805096569.
- ^ "Documents relating to the case". The National Archives. Retrieved 14 October 2008.
- ^ Ayling, pp. 85–87.
- ^ Ayling, p. 378; Cannon and Griffiths, p. 518.
- ^ Watson, p. 549.
- ^ Brooke, p. 391: "There can be no doubt that the King wrote 'Britain'."
- ^ Brooke, p. 88; Simms and Riotte, p. 58.
- ^ Baer, George III (1738–1820), 22 December 2021
- ^ Butterfield, pp. 22, 115–117, 129–130.
- ^ Hibbert, p. 86; Watson, pp. 67–79.
- ^ "Our history". The Crown Estate. 2004. Archived from the original on 13 November 2017. Retrieved 7 November 2017.
- ^ Kelso, Paul (6 March 2000). "The royal family and the public purse". The Guardian. Retrieved 4 April 2015.
- ^ Watson, p. 88; this view is also shared by Brooke (see for example p. 99).
- ^ Medley, p. 501.
- ^ Ayling, p. 194; Brooke, pp. xv, 214, 301.
- ^ Brooke, p. 215.
- ^ Ayling, p. 195.
- ^ Ayling, pp. 196–198.
- ^ Brooke, p. 145; Carretta, pp. 59, 64 ff.; Watson, p. 93.
- ^ Brooke, pp. 146–147.
- ^ Willcox & Arnstein (1988), pp. 131–132.
- ^ Chernow, p. 137.
- ^ Watson, pp. 183–184.
- ^ Cannon and Griffiths, p. 505; Hibbert, p. 122.
- ^ Cannon and Griffiths, p. 505.
- ^ Black, p. 82.
- ^ Watson, pp. 184–185.
- ^ Ayling, pp. 122–133; Hibbert, pp. 107–109; Watson, pp. 106–111.
- ^ Ayling, pp. 122–133; Hibbert, pp. 111–113.
- ^ Ayling, p. 137; Hibbert, p. 124.
- ^ Ayling, pp. 154–160; Brooke, pp. 147–151.
- ^ Ayling, pp. 167–168; Hibbert, p. 140.
- ^ Brooke, p. 260; Fraser, p. 277.
- ^ a b Brooke, pp. 272–282; Cannon and Griffiths, p. 498.
- ^ Hibbert, p. 141.
- ^ Hibbert, p. 143.
- ^ Watson, p. 197.
- ^ Thomas, p. 31.
- ^ Ayling, p. 121.
- ^ Taylor (2016), pp. 91–100
- ^ Chernow, pp. 214–215.
- ^ Carretta, pp. 97–98, 367.
- ^ O'Shaughnessy, Andrew Jackson (2014). The Men Who Lost America: British Leadership, the American Revolution, and the Fate of the Empire. pp. 158–164.
- ^ Willcox & Arnstein (1988), p. 162.
- ^ O'Shaughnessy, ch 1.
- ^ Trevelyan, vol. 1 p. 4.
- ^ Trevelyan, vol. 1 p. 5.
- ^ a b Cannon and Griffiths, pp. 510–511.
- ^ Brooke, p. 183.
- ^ Brooke, pp. 180–182, 192, 223.
- ^ Hibbert, pp. 156–157.
- ^ Willcox & Arnstein, p. 157.
- ^ a b c Willcox & Arnstein, pp. 161, 165.
- ISBN 978-0801873393.
- ^ Ayling, pp. 275–276.
- ^ Taylor (2016), p. 287
- ^ Taylor (2016), p. 290
- ^ Ayling, p. 284.
- ^ The Oxford Illustrated History of the British Army (1994) p. 129.
- ^ Brooke, p. 221.
- ^ U.S. Department of State, Treaty of Paris, 1783. Retrieved 5 July 2013.
- ^ Bullion, George III on Empire, 1783, p. 306.
- ^ Roos, Dave (7 October 2021). "Famous Loyalists of the Revolutionary War Era". history.com. Retrieved 19 April 2022.
- ^ Adams, C.F., ed. (1850–1856). The works of John Adams, second president of the United States. Vol. VIII. pp. 255–257, quoted in Ayling, p. 323 and Hibbert, p. 165.
- ^ e.g. Ayling, p. 281.
- ^ Hibbert, p. 243; Pares, p. 120.
- ^ Brooke, pp. 250–251.
- ^ Watson, pp. 272–279.
- ^ Brooke, p. 316; Carretta, pp. 262, 297.
- ^ Brooke, p. 259.
- ^ Ayling, p. 218.
- ^ Ayling, p. 220.
- ^ Ayling, pp. 222–230, 366–376.
- PMID 5323262.
- JSTOR 563552.
- ^ Röhl, Warren, and Hunt.
- S2CID 13109527.
- S2CID 22391207.
- PMID 21902081.
- PMID 28328964.
- ^ Roberts, pp. 677–680
- ^ "Parishes: Hartlebury Pages 380–387 A History of the County of Worcester: Volume 3". British History Online. Victoria County History, 1918. Retrieved 10 June 2023.
- ^ "Parishes: Callington – St Columb Pages 51–67 Magna Britannia: Volume 3, Cornwall". British History Online. Cadell & Davies, London 1814. Retrieved 10 June 2023.
- ^ "Was George III a manic depressive?". BBC News. 15 April 2013. Retrieved 23 July 2018.
- ^ Ayling, pp. 329–335; Brooke, pp. 322–328; Fraser, pp. 281–282; Hibbert, pp. 262–267.
- ^ Ayling, pp. 334–343; Brooke, p. 332; Fraser, p. 282.
- ^ Ayling, pp. 338–342; Hibbert, p. 273.
- ^ Ayling, p. 345.
- ^ Ayling, pp. 349–350; Carretta, p. 285; Fraser, p. 282; Hibbert, pp. 301–302; Watson, p. 323.
- ^ Carretta, p. 275.
- ^ Ayling, pp. 181–182; Fraser, p. 282.
- ISBN 0-394-70322-7.
- ^ Ayling, pp. 395–396; Watson, pp. 360–377.
- ^ Ayling, pp. 408–409.
- ^ a b Weir, p. 286.
- ^ Ayling, p. 411.
- ^ Hibbert, p. 313.
- ^ Ayling, p. 414; Brooke, p. 374; Hibbert, p. 315.
- ^ Watson, pp. 402–409.
- ^ Ayling, p. 423.
- ^ Colley, p. 225.
- ^ The Times, 27 October 1803, p. 2.
- ^ Brooke, p. 597.
- ^ Letter of 30 November 1803, quoted in Wheeler and Broadley, p. xiii.
- ^ "Nelson, Trafalgar, and those who served". National Archives. Retrieved 31 October 2009.
- ^ a b "Reasons for the success of the abolitionist campaign in 1807". BBC. Retrieved 25 October 2019.
- ^ Pares, p. 139.
- ^ Ayling, pp. 441–442.
- ^ Brooke, p. 381; Carretta, p. 340.
- ^ Hibbert, p. 396.
- ^ Hibbert, p. 394.
- ^ Brooke, p. 383; Hibbert, pp. 397–398.
- ^ Fraser, p. 285; Hibbert, pp. 399–402.
- ^ Ayling, pp. 453–455; Brooke, pp. 384–385; Hibbert, p. 405.
- ^ Hibbert, p. 408.
- ^ a b Black, p. 410.
- ^ Letter from Duke of York to George IV, quoted in Brooke, p. 386.
- ^ "Royal Burials in the Chapel since 1805". St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle. Dean and Canons of Windsor. Retrieved 7 November 2017.
- ^ Brooke, p. 387.
- ^ Why Andrew Roberts Wants Us to Reconsider King George III, Isaac Chotiner, The New Yorker, 9 November 2021, accessed 5 December 2021
- ^ Newman, Brooke (28 July 2020). "Throne of Blood". slate.com. Slate. Retrieved 21 August 2021.
- ISBN 978-1317471806 – via Google Books.
- ^ "Black Abolitionists and the end of the transatlantic slave trade". Black History Month 2019. 14 February 2008.
- ISBN 978-0230599437– via Google Books.
- ^ Klein, Christopher (13 February 2020). "The Ex-Slaves Who Fought with the British". History. Retrieved 22 August 2021.
- ^ "Transatlantic slave trade and abolition". Royal Museums Greenwich. 2021. Retrieved 14 September 2021.
- ^ Carretta, pp. 92–93, 267–273, 302–305, 317.
- ^ Watson, pp. 10–11.
- ^ Brooke, p. 90.
- ^ Carretta, pp. 99–101, 123–126.
- ^ Ayling, p. 247.
- ^ Reitan, p. viii.
- ^ Reitan, pp. xii–xiii.
- ISBN 978-0-7126-5279-7
- ^ Butterfield, p. 152.
- ^ Brooke, pp. 175–176.
- ^ The London Gazette consistently refers to the young prince as "His Royal Highness Prince George" "No. 8734". The London Gazette. 5 April 1748. p. 3. "No. 8735". The London Gazette. 9 April 1748. p. 2. "No. 8860". The London Gazette. 20 June 1749. p. 2. "No. 8898". The London Gazette. 31 October 1749. p. 3. "No. 8902". The London Gazette. 17 November 1749. p. 3. "No. 8963". The London Gazette. 16 June 1750. p. 1. "No. 8971". The London Gazette. 14 July 1750. p. 1.
- ^ a b Brooke, p. 390.
- ISBN 978-3643900043– via Google Books.
- ^ Shaw, Wm. A. (1906) The Knights of England, I, London, p. 44.
- ^ Shaw, p. ix.
- ^ Velde, François (5 August 2013). "Marks of Cadency in the British Royal Family". Heraldica. Retrieved 25 December 2021.
- ^ See, for example, Berry, William (1810). An introduction to heraldry containing the rudiments of the science. pp. 110–111.
- ISBN 978-0-900455-25-4.
- ^ "No. 15324". The London Gazette. 30 December 1800. p. 2.
- ^ "No. 17149". The London Gazette. 29 June 1816. p. 1.
- ISBN 9780750953825.
- ^ Genealogie ascendante jusqu'au quatrieme degre inclusivement de tous les Rois et Princes de maisons souveraines de l'Europe actuellement vivans [Genealogy up to the fourth degree inclusive of all the Kings and Princes of sovereign houses of Europe currently living] (in French). Bourdeaux: Frederic Guillaume Birnstiel. 1768. p. 4.
Bibliography
- Ayling, Stanley Edward (1972). George the Third. London: Collins. ISBN 0-00-211412-7.
- Benjamin, Lewis Saul (1907). Farmer George. Pitman and Sons.
- Baer, Marc (22 December 2021). "George III (1738–1820)". Encyclopedia Virginia.
- ISBN 0-300-11732-9.
- ISBN 0-09-456110-9.
- Bullion, John L. (1994). "George III on Empire, 1783". The William and Mary Quarterly. 51 (2). Omohundro Institute of Early American History and Culture: 305–310. JSTOR 2946866.
- Butterfield, Herbert (1957). George III and the Historians. London: Collins.
- doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/10540. (Subscription or UK public library membershiprequired.)
- Cannon, John; ISBN 0-19-822786-8.
- Carretta, Vincent (1990). George III and the Satirists from Hogarth to Byron. Athens, Georgia: University of Georgia Press. ISBN 0-8203-1146-4.
- Chernow, Ron (2010). Washington: A Life. Penguin Press. ISBN 978-1-59420-266-7.
- Colley, Linda (2005). Britons: Forging the Nation, 1707–1837. Yale University Press. ISBN 0300107595.
- ISBN 0-297-76911-1.
- ISBN 0-14-025737-3.
- Medley, Dudley Julius (1902). A Student's Manual of English Constitutional History. p. 501.
- O'Shaughnessy, Andrew Jackson (2013). The Men Who Lost America: British Leadership, the American Revolution, and the Fate of the Empire. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0300191073.
- Pares, Richard (1953). King George III and the Politicians. Oxford University Press.
- Reitan, E. A., ed. (1964). George III, Tyrant Or Constitutional Monarch?. Boston: D. C. Heath and Company. A compilation of essays encompassing the major assessments of George III up to 1964.
- OCLC 1334883294.
- ISBN 0-593-04148-8.
- Sedgwick, Romney, ed. (1903). Letters from George III to Lord Bute, 1756–1766. Macmillan.
- Simms, Brendan; Riotte, Torsten (2007). The Hanoverian Dimension in British History, 1714–1837. Cambridge University Press.
- Taylor, Alan (2016). American Revolutions: A Continental History, 1750–1804. New York City: W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. ISBN 978-0-393-35476-8.
- .
- Trevelyan, George (1912). George the Third and Charles Fox: The Concluding Part of the American Revolution. New York: Longmans, Green.
- Watson, J. Steven(1960). The Reign of George III, 1760–1815. London: Oxford University Press.
- ISBN 0-7126-7448-9.
- Wheeler, H. F. B.; Broadley, A. M. (1908). Napoleon and the Invasion of England. Volume I. London: John Lane The Bodley Head.
- ISBN 0-669-13423-6.
Further reading
- Black, Jeremy (1996). "Could the British Have Won the American War of Independence?". Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research. 74 (299): 145–154. .
- Butterfield, Herbert (1965). "Some Reflections on the Early Years of George III's Reign". Journal of British Studies. 4 (2): 78–101. S2CID 162958860.
- Ditchfield, G. M. (31 October 2002). George III: An Essay in Monarchy. Palgrave Macmillan UK. ISBN 978-0333919620.
- Golding, Christopher T. (2017). At Water's Edge: Britain, Napoleon, and the World, 1793–1815. Temple University Press.
- Hadlow, Janice (2014). A Royal Experiment: The Private Life of King George III. Henry Holt and Company.
- Hecht, J. Jean (1966). "The Reign of George III in Recent Historiography". In Furber, Elizabeth Chapin (ed.). Changing views on British history: essays on historical writing since 1939. Harvard University Press. pp. 206–234.
- Macalpine, Ida; Hunter, Richard (1966). "The 'insanity' of King George III: a classic case of porphyria". Br. Med. J. 1 (5479): 65–71. PMID 5323262.
- Macalpine, I.; Hunter, R.; Rimington, C. (1968). "Porphyria in the Royal Houses of Stuart, Hanover, and Prussia". British Medical Journal. 1 (5583): 7–18. PMID 4866084.
- Namier, Lewis B.(1955). "King George III: A Study in Personality". Personalities and Power. London: Hamish Hamilton.
- O'Shaughnessy, Andrew Jackson (Spring 2004). "'If Others Will Not Be Active, I Must Drive': George III and the American Revolution". Early American Studies. 2 (1): iii, 1–46. S2CID 143613757.
- ISBN 978-1984879264.
- Robertson, Charles Grant (1911). England under the Hanoverians. London: Methuen.
- Robson, Eric (1952). "The American Revolution Reconsidered". History Today. 2 (2): 126–132. British views
- Smith, Robert A. (1984). "Reinterpreting the Reign of George III". In Schlatter, Richard (ed.). Recent Views on British History: Essays on Historical Writing since 1966. Rutgers University Press. pp. 197–254.
External links
- George III at the official website of the British monarchy
- George III at the official website of the Royal Collection Trust
- George III at BBC History
- Portraits of King George III at the National Portrait Gallery, London
- Georgian Papers Programme
- George III papers, including references to madhouses and insanity from the Historic Psychiatry Collection, Menninger Archives, Kansas Historical Society
- Newspaper clippings about George III in the 20th Century Press Archives of the ZBW
- "Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade – Estimates". slavevoyages.org.