George II of Greece
George II Γεώργιος Βʹ | |
---|---|
King of the Hellenes | |
First reign | 27 September 1922 – 25 March 1924[a] |
Predecessor | Constantine I |
Successor | Monarchy abolished; |
Prime ministers | |
Second reign | 25 November 1935 – 1 April 1947 |
Predecessor | Monarchy re-established; |
Successor | Paul |
Prime ministers | See list |
Born | 19 July 1890 (O.S.: 7 July 1890) Tatoi Palace, Athens, Greece |
Died | 1 April 1947 Athens, Greece | (aged 56)
Burial | 6 April 1947 Royal Cemetery, Tatoi Palace, Greece |
Spouse | |
Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg | |
Father | Constantine I of Greece |
Mother | Sophia of Prussia |
Signature | |
Military career | |
Allegiance | Kingdom of Greece[b] |
Service/ |
|
Years of service | 1909–1922 Second Lieutenant |
George II (
The eldest son of King
Greece was overrun following
Early life
Birth and childhood
George was born at the royal villa at
George was the eldest of six siblings, born between 1890 and 1913,[7] and spent most of his childhood in Athens in a villa on Kifisias Avenue in the former Presidential Mansion, which was the residence of the Crown Prince. The mansion is now the official residence of the President of Greece.[8][9] As a child, George also made numerous visits to Great Britain, where he stayed for several weeks to visit his British relatives. The Greek royals often stayed in Seaford and Eastbourne. George also made visits to Germany to see his mother's family and they stayed in Schlosshotel Kronberg with his grandmother, Victoria, but also took summer holidays in Corfu and Venice, travelling on their private yacht, Amphritrite IV.[10]
George has been described by historians John Van der Kiste and Vicente Mateos Sáinz de Medrano as the most introverted and distant of his siblings, having been aware of his role as heir from a young age.[11][12] Van der Kiste presents George as a child who often misbehaved, especially during visits to Germany, but less turbulent than his younger brother, Alexander, who was described as mischievous, and less sporty his younger sister, Helen, who was seen as a tomboy.[13]
Goudi coup and Balkan Wars
George pursued a military career, training with the
Some of the officers involved in the coup believed that the country would be better off if King George I was deposed and replaced by another neutral candidate, such as by George, his grandson. Proposed candidates included the Austrian duke
As Greece became more politically stable as violent protests lessened, George, his siblings and his parents returned to Greece at the end of 1910.[24] In 1911, Prime Minister Eleftherios Venizelos allowed members of the royal family to be given back their former ranks in the military, but George returned to Germany to continue training with the Prussian army.[25][26] When the First Balkan War commenced in October 1912, George returned to Greece to fight against the Ottoman Empire. George and his brother, Alexander, served as officers on his father's staff.[27][28] George served in numerous battles, which was criticised by the media as it put the country's future monarch as risk of being killed. One such battle that George participated in was the capture of Thessaloniki on 8 November [Old Style: 26 October] 1912, which marked major progress for Greece in the war.[28][29]
Crown Prince
World War I
On 18 March [Old Style: 5 March] 1913, George's grandfather and the reigning king, George I, was assassinated while taking his daily walk in Thessaloniki. Crown Prince Constantine, whose popularity had grown due to Greece's successes in the First Balkan War, acceded to the throne as King Constantine I.
The assassination sparked the outbreak of World War I, in which Constantine wished to maintain Greece's neutrality. Constantine believed that Greece was unready to fight after its involvement in the Balkan Wars and also feared displeasing his brother-in-law, Wilhelm II. Opposition soon accused Constantine of supporting the Triple Alliance, made up of Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy, and relations between him and Venizelos, who believed that Greece should side with the Triple Entente, made up of Great Britain, France and Russia, quickly deteriorated. The entire Greek government, supported by the French government, soon declared in October 1916 that siding with the Entente was their preferred option. Central Greece was occupied by the Western Allies, an extension of the Triple Entente, and a National Schism between supporters of Constantine and supporters of Venizelos broke out.[35] Constantine refused to alter his opinion and his popularity heavily decreased. A fire in Tatoi Palace broke out on 14 July [Old Style: 1 July] 1916 and French agents were blamed for it. Multiple members of the royal family were close fatalities of it. Though George was not present at the time, his younger sister, Princess Katherine, who was only three years old, was carried into the palace woods for two kilometres to be saved. Between sixteen and eighteen people, made up of firefighters and palace staff, died.[36][37]
On 19 June [Old Style: 6 June] 1917, French politician and leader of the Entente Charles Jonnart ordered George's father, Constantine, to abdicate.[38] Due to worry of the impending Allied invasion at Piraeus, Constantine agreed to be placed in exile without having to abdicate. The Allies were against establishing a republic in Greece and thus looked for a replacement. George's name was put forward, but the Allies perceived him as a germanophile, like his father, due to his links to the Prussian army and German imperial family.[14] George's uncle, Prince George, was offered the position, but he refused out of loyalty to Constantine.[39][40][41] Ultimately, George's younger brother, Alexander, was chosen by Venizelos and the Entente to replace Constantine.[42][39]
On 10 June [Old Style: 28 May] 1917, Alexander officially ascended to the throne in a small ceremony that was only attended by George and former Prime Minister
First exile
George and his family settled in Switzerland, first in
According to historian Marlene Eilers Koen, George was in love with his cousin Anastasia de Torby, however their relationship was opposed by George's mother, Sophia, as Anastasia was the result of a morganatic marriage. George later became engaged in October 1920 to Elisabeth of Romania, who had been in touch with George since 1911. George had previously asked Elisabeth to marry in 1914, but she declined off the advice of her great-aunt, Elisabeth of Wied, who thought of George as being two small and too English. Elisabeth herself had declared that George was a prince whom God had forgotten to complete.[33][51] Her feelings remain the same when the pair meet in Switzerland, however she accepted on the basis of her own imperfections.[52] Although George's family had lost most of their wealth in exile, the Romanian royal family swiftly invited George and Elisabeth to return to Bucharest, in Romania, to announce their engagement.[52][53]
Greco-Turkish war
George was in Romania when Alexander died following an infection from a monkey bite in 1920. Parliament continued to refuse the crown to George nor Constantine, so it was offered to Constantine's third son, Paul, who refused to break the legitimate line of succession.[54][55][56] Greece was making no progress in the Greco-Turkish War and in the 1920 Greek legislative election, Venizelos was voted out of office. Dimitrios Rallis, a monarchist, was appointed Prime Minister and the 1920 Greek referendum restored Constantine to the throne. According to Van der Kiste, the referendum was most likely rigged by Rallis.[57] Before Venizelos fled to Constantinople in exile, he asked George's grandmother, Olga Constantinovna, to act as regent while Constantine returned to Greece.[57] On 19 December, George returned to Greece as the crown prince under his father's second reign. Many portraits of Venizelos were torn down in state celebrations and replaced with photos of the royal family.[57] Upon their return, the royals made numerous balcony appearances to please the large crowd that had turned out to see them return.[58][59]
A few weeks later, on 27 February [Old Style: 14 February] 1921, George married Elisabeth in Bucharest. Two weeks after, George's younger sister, Helen, married Elisabeth's brother,
In response to the ongoing war, Constantine quickly assumed the role of commander-in-chief of the army and resided in
Elisabeth had been pregnant since her and George's marriage, but suffered a miscarriage while travelling to Smyrna. Some historians argue that her miscarriage was actually the abortion of an illegitimate child that was the result of an affair between her and British diplomat Frank Rattigan, the father of
First reign
To avoid more unrest, Constantine officially abdicated on 27 September [Old Style: 14 September] 1922 and moved to Italy with Sophia and his daughters in exile, while George prepared to become the monarch. George left for Bucharest to retrieve his wife and the pair returned to Greece to be crowned.[79] George officially ascended to the throne as George II, but did not receive a happy reception and faced harsh criticism. In Greece, there had been greater political instability since the 1922 Greek coup d'état, which influenced Constantine's abdication, and a large influx of refugees from Asia Minor as a result of the war.[72][80] Supporters of Venizelos still maintained a high degree of influence and power in the country, with Plastiras and Gonatas leading the country. George and Elisabeth were confided to Tatoi and were highly monitored by the government, while George worried about the growing instability in Greece and criticism from the former Allies, who had previously refused to recognise Constantine's second reign.[81][82]
Between 13 October and 28 November
Constantine died in
Second exile
The
Tried by the humiliations of exile, financial difficulties and the absence of children, George and Elisabeth's marriage deteriorated. After having first assuaged her weariness in too rich food and gambling, Elisabeth then carried out extra-marital affairs with various married men. She took advantage of a visit to her sick sister, Maria, in Belgrade to flirt with her own brother-in-law, Alexander I of Yugoslavia. Later, she began an affair with her husband's banker, a Greek named Alexandros Scavani, whom she made her chamberlain to cover up the scandal. Some scholars have blamed her affairs on George's abandonment of their relationship. In exile, George stayed half the year in Romania with Elisabeth, and the other half living with his mother at Villa Bobolina in Tuscany, either with or without his wife.[100][101][102] George eventually moved to the United Kingdom, where he had numerous extended family members and friends.[103][102] On 16 September 1930, George was initiated into Freemasonry in London and became venerable master of the Wellwood Lodge in 1933.[104] After the death of Sophia in 1932, George chose to permanently leave Bucharest and his wife to establish his residence in London.[102][105] Accompanied by his squire, Major Dimitrios Levidis, and Mitso Panteleos, George rented a small suite with two rooms at Brown's Hotel in Mayfair.[102]
George still lacked much wealth and received a mixed reception in Britain, where he was criticised for his relations with Wilhelm II. In London, George was finally reunited with Andrew and his wife. George also regularly attended hunting trips in Scotland with his companions and members of the
Second reign
Restoration of the monarchy
After the abolition of the monarchy in 1924, leaders who opposed Venizelos, except for Metaxas, refused to recognise the new regime.[115] This "regime issue" that arose just after the proclamation of the republic, haunted Greek politics for more than a decade and eventually led to the restoration of monarchy. In just over ten years, Greece had twenty-three governments, thirteen coup d'états and one dictatorship. On average, each Cabinet lasted six months and a coup d'état was organised every 42 weeks. Having failed to restore political instability, the republicanism movement in Greece became criticised and opposed by the public. Gradually, there were more and more protests that voiced to restore the monarchy. Although most protestors wished to have George reinstalled, there were voices to have a new monarch from a new dynasty be inducted, such as George, Duke of Kent.[102][116][117]
On 10 October 1935, General
The organisation of the plebiscite discontented the Greek government. When the election results were announced, a delegation was sent to the Greek embassy in London to officially ask George and his younger brother, Paul, to return to Athens, which they accepted on 5 November 1935.
Kondylis lost his status as
Metaxas dictatorship
On 4 August 1936, George endorsed Metaxas's dictatorship, known as the "
The Greeks are orientals. They consider moderation in the exercise of power as a weakness. They are the most democratic people in the world, but once they take power, they automatically become tyrannical. Everyone knows it and accepts it.
— George II to the Greek ambassador to the United Kingdom.[135]
Most of the royal family's possessions had been either ransacked, lost or sold during the republic.[136] For example, he future Presidential Palace in Athens had been almost completely emptied and its furniture sold by the republican Greek government. When the monarchy was restored, George nor any member of the royal family requested compensation for their lost property. Lacking wealth, George took charge of the restoration and redecoration works of his residencies, which he refurnished by gaining items from auctions and markets.[137] George continued his relationship with Wallach, but it was kept secret from the public and any possible marriage between the pair would not be allowed due to Wallach's commoner status.[138] When engagements required a first lady to be present, George would call his sister Katherine or his sister Irene, who were both single at the time.[139][140] George made very frequent visits back to London, at least once every year, typically at the end of the year, to reunite with his extended family and friends. He was weary of Metaxas when taking these trips and would never be away from Greece for too long. His trips though allowed for the acquisition by Greece of more military equipment and vehicles from Britain.[141][142] One of George's priorities was to retrieve the bodies of his mother and father from Italy. In November 1936, he sent Paul to Florence to recover the bodies of their parents, Constantine and Sophie, and of their grandmother, Olga. They were transferred to Greece by the ship Averof and exhibited for the public for six days in the Metropolitan Cathedral of Athens. On 23 November, a small ceremony was held at the Church of the Resurrection at Tatoi. It was attended by members of the royal family and foreign European royals and nobles.[143][144][145] George would go on, in 1940, to retrieve the remains of his aunt, Alexandra, who had died in Russia in 1891, from the Soviet Union. This satisfied the wishes of his grandmother.[146]
With George's divorce, his relationship with a commoner and his lack of offspring, Paul assumed the role of heir apparent to the throne, however he too was still single. Succession laws were
World War II
Home front
On 2 June 1940, Frederica gave birth to the future
Metaxas died on 29 January 1941 and George refused to set up a
George had thus a unique opportunity to form a broader government of national consensus, and abolish the hated dictatorial regime—whose sole bastion of support he now was. Though urged to this step by the influential British ambassador, Michael Palairet, George refused.[160] Instead, several names were put forward to head a government. George initially proposed Konstantinos Kotzias, one of Metaxas's ministers, but his ties to the regime made him an unfeasible choice. Instead, veteran Venizelist general Alexandros Mazarakis-Ainian was given the mandate to form a government, but returned it on 20 April, partly due to his refusal to collaborate with Metaxas's hated Security Minister Konstantinos Maniadakis. Other figures, such as the former dictator Pangalos, were also rejected.[161] Finally, Emmanouil Tsouderos, former governor of the Bank of Greece, was chosen, chiefly on account of his known Anglophile sentiments, Venizelist past, and Cretan origin-where with mainland Greece being overrun, the government was preparing to evacuate too. Most Cretans supported Venizelos but were generally seen as anti-monarchical, this appointment was seen as a sop to local sentiment.[162]
On 22 April, most members of the royal family were evacuated from the Greek mainland to Crete, but George and Paul remained in Athens until the next day, when they and the government too fled.[163][159] George established headquarters in Chania, a few weeks before a German airborne attack. Despite defense of the island by Greek, Australian and New Zealand forces, alongside the local population, Crete slowly capitulated to Nazi forces. Hitler had named George the "number one enemy of the Reich in Greece" and George had narrowly escaped German paratroopers, so he decided that the royals and the government were to evacuate. They escaped on the HMS Decoy and fled to Egypt. For his actions on Crete, George was awarded with the Distinguished Service Order, becoming the only monarch in history to be decorated with the award.[164][165][166]
King-in-exile
Throughout the Axis occupation, George remained the internationally recognised head of state, backed by the Greek government-in-exile and the Free Greek Forces. However, the British Foreign Office found George exceedingly difficult to deal with. He was deeply obstinate about upholding what he regarded as his royal prerogatives. He proved notably unwilling to compromise with those who wanted a clear break with the 4th of August Regime.[95] He also resisted British pressure to promise to restore the constitution of 1911, under the grounds that doing so would be to admit he acted illegally in suspending parts of the constitution in 1936.[167] As late as 1942, George kept on Cabinet ministers from the Metaxas regime, most notably Maniadakis.[168]
The Greek royals' presence in Egypt upset
Perhaps deeply paranoid and insecure, George believed that the British government was plotting to prevent his return to Greece, despite all of the evidence to the contrary.[95] Edward Warner of the Southern Department of the Foreign Office wrote in March 1942 that the king was "under the extraordinary impression that the Foreign Office was 'pro-Republican and anti-himself'".[179] The British ambassador to the government-in-exile, Sir Reginald Leeper, noted that the king's coldness did not win him many friends, writing: "Amongst these vivacious, talkative and intensely political southerners he is very much the reserved northerner who damps the ardour of those who might otherwise acclaim him".[95] Leeper noted that almost every meeting he had with the king, he had to listen to a lengthy litany of complaints.[167] In particular, the king objected to BBC's Greek language service, whose main radio announcer, G.N. Soteriadis, was a Venizelist. George repeatedly asked that Soteriadis be replaced with a monarchist. One of George's few friends was Churchill, who was determined to see him restored and often backed the king's complaints against his own officials.[179]
In occupied Greece, however, the leftist partisans of the
Finally, Greece is liberated from the Axis. As late as Christmas Eve 1944, during the height of the Dekemvriana, George had rejected the compromise solution of a regency, demanding that he return to Greece at once to reclaim his throne.[187] On 29 December 1944, at a meeting at 10 Downing Street, Churchill told the king "that if he did not agree to the matter would be settled without him, and that we should recognise the new government instead of him".[188] George's private secretary recalled, "I could hear through the door the voices of Churchill and Eden, particularly the latter, raised in anger at the king. In this heated argument the door was flung open and the king stormed out, his face white and taut ... In the car as we drove back to the hotel the King would not trust himself to speak; after recovering his composure he went back to Downing Street and informed Churchill and Eden that had no choice but to acquiesce to their demands".[189] Bowing to pressure, George was forced to appoint Archbishop Damaskinos of Athens as regent in January 1945. Damaskinos immediately appointed a republican-dominated government. Ailing, exhausted and powerless, George bought a lease on a house in Chester Square, Belgravia, and made a home there with Wallach, his long-time mistress.[190]
Return to Greece and later reign
Though World War II was over, political instability in Greece remained very high. There was tension and violence between communists and British forces, commanded by General Ronald Scobie. On 31 March 1946, under the surveillance of the American, British and French governments, the 1946 Greek legislative election was held and the United Alignment of Nationalists, a royalist party, won a strong majority of seats, aided by the abstention of the communists, and the 1946 Greek referendum on the monarchy was set for 1 September.[191] Between then and the referendum, the electoral registers were revised under Allied supervision. The announced results claimed 68.4% in favour of George's return on an 86.6% turnout.[192] However, even Allied observers acknowledged that the official results were marked by significant fraud by monarchist supporters.[193] The official Allied observation report recorded, "There is no doubt in our minds that the party representing the government view exercised undue influence in securing votes in support of the return of the King."[194]
The new Prime Minister, Konstantinos Tsaldaris, went to London to invite George II back to Greece. On 27 September, George returned to Elefsina, Greece, and met with Paul and Frederica. From there, they and other members of the royal family travelled to Athens and were greeted by a large crowd and a Te Deum, celebrated by Damaskinos.[195] Despite democracy being restored, the Greek population were still heavily suffering from the war. Van der Kiste estimates that 77% of the naval fleet was destroyed, 95% of railways destroyed and over 300 villages ransacked. George returned to find Tatoi Palace looted, the surrounding woods chopped down for fuel and corpses buried in shallow graves outside. His country also faced economic collapse.[196]
With his residencies having been badly damaged, George moved into a cottage built for his father. His sister, Catherine, lived with him there as well with her staff. George attempted to depict his lifestyle as modest during a time of high rationing, and spent most of his time working in his office and opening letters addressed to him.
Death
From the announcement of Princess Katherine's engagement to British Major
In popular culture
War propaganda
During World War II, the Allies used the figure of George II as an instrument of propaganda to reinforce Greek patriotic sentiment. Several short films centred on the sovereign and his government were thus shot, such as Heroic Greece! by the American Frank Norton (1941).[201]
Television and literature
The romantic relationship of King George II and his mistress, nicknamed "Mrs. Brown", is briefly mentioned in the third episode ("The New King") of the British
Music
On the occasion of the restoration of George II as monarch in 1935, the rebetiko singer Markos Vamvakaris wrote a song titled "We welcome you, King" (Greek: Καλώς μας ήρθες Bασιλιά, romanized: Kalós mas írthes Vasiliá).[204]
Philately
Various stamps bearing the effigy of George II have been issued by
- A series of four stamps depicting the sovereign was thus issued, shortly after his restoration to the throne, on 1 November 1937, with face values of ₯1, ₯3, ₯8 and ₯100.[205]
- A series of four stamps were issued in 1947 upon George's return to Greece after World War II.
- A commemorative stamp depicting George above Crete was issued in 1950 in memoriam the Battle of Crete.
- Two stamps were released in 1956 and 1957 that showcased each Greek monarch.
- A series of five stamps were released in 1963 to mark the centenary of the Greek monarchy. Each Greek monarch was depicted.[206]
Numismatics
Various Greek coins bearing the image of George II have been issued by the Bank of Greece. Among these are:
- A series of commemorative coins minted in 1940 to celebrate the fifth anniversary of the king's restoration (₯20 and ₯100 coins struck in copper, silver and gold bearing the date of 25 November 1935).[207]
- A ₯30 silver coin put into circulation in 1963 on the occasion of the centenary of the Greek monarchy and showing the portraits of kings George I, Constantine I, Alexander I and George II and Paul I.[208][209]
Honours
- Kingdom of Greece:[210]
- Founder of the Order of St. George and St. Constantine, January 1936
- Founder of the Order of Saints Olga and Sophia, January 1936
- Commander's cross of the Cross of Valour, 28 October 1946[211]
- Founder of the
- Denmark:[212]
- Knight of the Elephant, with Collar, 15 August 1909
- Cross of Honour of the Order of the Dannebrog, 15 August 1909
- France: Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour, 10 December 1892[213]
- House of Savoy: Knight of the Annunciation, with Collar and Star[214]
- Order of Saint-Charles, 11 April 1940[215]
- Poland: Knight of the White Eagle
- Norway: War Cross Medal[216]
- Romania: Collar of the Order of Carol I
- Sweden: Knight of the Seraphim, 20 May 1919[217]
- United Kingdom:
- Honorary Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order, 20 July 1909[218]
- Stranger Knight Companion of the Garter, 7 November 1938[219]
- Associate Bailiff Grand Cross of St. John
- Companion of the Distinguished Service Order[220]
Ancestry
Ancestors of George II of Greece | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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References
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- ^ Zarkovic Bookman 1997, p. 245.
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{{cite book}}
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Further reading
- Fillas, Michalis (2019–2020). "H επίσκεψη του Βασιλέως Γεωργίου β΄ στη Σάμο το 1937 μέσα από τον σαμιακό τύπο της εποχής: η περίπτωση των εφημερίδων 'Σάμος' και 'Αιγαίον'" [The visit of King George II to Samos in 1937 through the Sami press of the time: the case of the newspapers 'Samos' and 'Aegaion']. Bulletin of Samian Studies (in Greek). 5: 113–126.
External links