George IV
George IV | |
---|---|
Prince Regent of the United Kingdom | |
Regency | 5 February 1811 – 29 January 1820 |
Monarch | George III |
Born | St James's Palace, London, England | 12 August 1762
Died | 26 June 1830 Windsor Castle, Berkshire, England | (aged 67)
Burial | 15 July 1830 Royal Vault, St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle |
Spouse | |
Protestant | |
Signature |
George IV (George Augustus Frederick; 12 August 1762 – 26 June 1830) was
George IV was the eldest child of King George III and
George's rule was tarnished by scandal and financial extravagance. His ministers found his behaviour selfish, unreliable and irresponsible and he was strongly influenced by favourites.
Early life
George was born at
At the age of 18, Prince George was given a separate establishment, and in dramatic contrast to his prosaic, scandal-free father, threw himself with zest into a life of dissipation and wild extravagance involving heavy drinking and numerous mistresses and escapades. He was a witty conversationalist, drunk or sober, and showed good, but grossly expensive, taste in decorating his palace. George turned 21 in 1783, and obtained a grant of £60,000 (equivalent to £7,685,000 today[6]) from Parliament and an annual income of £50,000 (equivalent to £6,404,000 today[6]) from his father. It was far too little for his wants – his stables alone cost £31,000 a year. He then established his residence in Carlton House, where he lived a profligate life.[7] Animosity developed between the prince and his father, who desired more frugal behaviour on the part of the heir apparent. The King, a political conservative, was also alienated by the prince's adherence to Charles James Fox and other radically inclined politicians.[8]
Soon after he reached the age of 21, the prince became infatuated with Maria Fitzherbert. She was a commoner (though granddaughter of a baronet), six years his elder, twice widowed, and a Roman Catholic.[9] Nevertheless, the prince was determined to marry her. This was in spite of the Act of Settlement 1701, which barred the spouse of a Catholic from succeeding to the throne, and the Royal Marriages Act 1772, which prohibited his marriage without the King's consent.[10]
The couple went through a marriage ceremony on 15 December 1785 at Fitzherbert's house in Park Street, Mayfair. Legally the union was void, as the King's consent was not granted (and never even requested).[11] However, Fitzherbert believed that she was the prince's canonical and true wife, holding the law of the Church to be superior to the law of the State. For political reasons, the union was to remain secret and Fitzherbert promised not to reveal it.[12] But, in spring 1786, covert allusions to the marriage appeared in the press, and several satirical prints depicted the clandestine marriage.[13]
Prince George was plunged into debt by his exorbitant lifestyle. His father refused to assist him, forcing him to quit Carlton House and live at Fitzherbert's residence. In 1787, the prince's political allies proposed to relieve his debts with a parliamentary grant. George's relationship with Fitzherbert was suspected, and revelation of the
Regency crisis of 1788
In the summer of 1788, the King's mental health deteriorated, possibly as the result of the hereditary disease porphyria.[17][18] He nonetheless discharged some of his duties and declared Parliament prorogued from 25 September to 20 November. During the prorogation, he became deranged, posing a threat to his own life, and when Parliament reconvened in November, the King could not deliver the customary speech from the throne during the State Opening of Parliament. Parliament found itself in an untenable position: according to long-established law it could not proceed to any business until the delivery of the King's Speech at a State Opening.[14][19]
Although arguably barred from doing so, Parliament began debating a regency. In the House of Commons, Charles James Fox declared his opinion that Prince George was automatically entitled to exercise sovereignty during the King's incapacity. A contrasting opinion was held by the prime minister, William Pitt the Younger, who argued that, in the absence of a statute to the contrary, the right to choose a regent belonged to Parliament alone.[20] He even stated that, without parliamentary authority "the Prince of Wales had no more right ... to assume the government, than any other individual subject of the country".[21] Though disagreeing on the principle underlying a regency, Pitt agreed with Fox that the Prince of Wales would be the most convenient choice for a regent.[14][19]
The Prince of Wales, though offended by Pitt's boldness, did not lend his full support to Fox's approach. Prince George's brother Prince Frederick, Duke of York and Albany, declared that George would not attempt to exercise any power without previously obtaining the consent of Parliament.[22] Following the passage of preliminary resolutions Pitt outlined a formal plan for the regency, suggesting that Prince George's powers be greatly limited. Among other things, George would not be able either to sell the King's property or to grant a peerage to anyone other than a child of the King. Prince George denounced Pitt's scheme by declaring it a "project for producing weakness, disorder, and insecurity in every branch of the administration of affairs".[23] In the interests of the nation, both factions agreed to compromise.[19]
A significant technical impediment to any Regency Bill involved the lack of a speech from the throne, which was necessary before Parliament could proceed to any debates or votes. The speech was normally delivered by the King but could also be delivered by royal representatives known as Lords Commissioners. However, no document could empower the Lords Commissioners to act unless the Great Seal of the Realm was affixed to it. The seal could not be legally affixed without the prior authorisation of the sovereign. Pitt and his fellow ministers ignored the last requirement and instructed the Lord Chancellor to affix the Great Seal without the King's consent, as the act of affixing the Great Seal in itself gave legal force to the bill. The legal fiction was denounced by Edmund Burke as "forgery, fraud";[24] a "glaring falsehood"[25] and a "palpable absurdity".[25] Prince Frederick described the plan as "unconstitutional and illegal".[23] Nevertheless, others in Parliament felt that such a scheme was necessary to preserve an effective government. Consequently, on 3 February 1789, more than two months after it had convened, Parliament was formally opened by an "illegal" group of Lords Commissioners. The Regency Bill was introduced, but before it could be passed the King recovered. The King declared retroactively that the instrument authorising the Lords Commissioners to act was valid.[14][19]
Marriage and mistresses
Prince George's debts continued to climb, and his father refused to aid him unless he married his cousin
George's mistresses included Mary Robinson, an actress whom he paid to leave the stage;[28] Grace Elliott, the divorced wife of a physician;[29][30] and Frances Villiers, Countess of Jersey, who dominated his life for some years.[27] In later life, his mistresses were the Marchioness of Hertford and the Marchioness Conyngham.[31]
George was rumoured to have fathered several illegitimate children. James Ord (born 1786)—who moved to the United States and became a Jesuit priest—was reportedly his son by Fitzherbert.
The problem of George's debts, which amounted to the extraordinary sum of £630,000 in 1795[36] (equivalent to £69,246,000 today[6]), was solved (at least temporarily) by Parliament. Being unwilling to make an outright grant to relieve these debts, it provided him an additional sum of £65,000 (equivalent to £7,144,000 today[6]) per annum.[37] In 1803, a further £60,000 (equivalent to £5,829,000 today[6]) was added, and George's debts as at 1795 were finally cleared in 1806, although the debts he had incurred since 1795 remained.[16]
In 1804, a dispute arose over the custody of Princess Charlotte, which led to her being placed in the care of the King. It also led to a Parliamentary Commission of Enquiry into Princess Caroline's conduct after her husband accused her of having an illegitimate son. The investigation cleared Caroline of the charge but still revealed her behaviour to have been extraordinarily indiscreet.[38]
Regency
In late 1810, the King's mental health once again broke down, following the death of his youngest daughter,
The Regent let his ministers take full charge of government affairs, playing a far smaller role than his father. The principle that the prime minister was the person supported by a majority in the House of Commons, whether the King personally favoured him or not, became established.
In 1812, when it appeared highly unlikely that the King would recover, the Prince Regent again failed to appoint a new Whig administration. Instead, he asked the Whigs to join the existing ministry under Perceval. The Whigs, however, refused to co-operate because of disagreements over Catholic emancipation. Grudgingly, Prince George allowed Perceval to continue as prime minister.[43]
On 11 May 1812,
The Tories, unlike Whigs such as
During this period George took an active interest in matters of style and taste, and his associates such as the dandy
Reign
When George III died in 1820, the Prince Regent, then aged 57, ascended the throne as George IV, with no real change in his powers.[49] By the time of his accession, he was obese and possibly addicted to laudanum.[5]
George IV's relationship with his wife Caroline had deteriorated by the time of his accession. They had lived separately since 1796, and both were having affairs. In 1814, Caroline left the United Kingdom for continental Europe, but she chose to return for her husband's coronation and to publicly assert her rights as queen consort. However, he refused to recognise Caroline as queen, and commanded British ambassadors to ensure that monarchs in foreign courts did the same. By royal command, Caroline's name was omitted from the Book of Common Prayer, the liturgy of the Church of England.[50]
The King sought a divorce, but his advisors suggested that any divorce proceedings might involve the publication of details relating to George's own adulterous relationships. Therefore, he requested and ensured the introduction of the
George's coronation was a magnificent and expensive affair, costing about £243,000 (approximately £23,558,000 in 2024;[6] for comparison, his father's coronation had only cost about £10,000). Despite the enormous cost, it was a popular event.[5] In 1821, George became the first monarch to pay a state visit to Ireland since Richard II of England.[52] The following year he visited Edinburgh for "one and twenty daft days".[53] His visit to Scotland, organised by Sir Walter Scott, was the first by a reigning monarch since the mid-17th century.[54]
George spent most of his later reign in seclusion at Windsor Castle,[55] but he continued to intervene in politics. At first it was believed that he would support Catholic emancipation, as he had proposed a Catholic Emancipation Bill for Ireland in 1797, but his anti-Catholic views became clear in 1813 when he privately canvassed against the ultimately defeated Catholic Relief Bill of 1813. By 1824 he was denouncing Catholic emancipation in public.[56] Having taken the coronation oath on his accession, George now argued that he had sworn to uphold the Protestant faith, and could not support any pro-Catholic measures.[57] The influence of the Crown was so great, and the will of the Tories under Prime Minister Liverpool so strong, that Catholic emancipation seemed hopeless. In 1827, however, Liverpool retired, to be replaced by the pro-emancipation Tory George Canning. When Canning entered office, the King, hitherto content with privately instructing his ministers on the Catholic Question, thought it fit to make a public declaration to the effect that his sentiments on the question were those of his revered father, George III.[58]
Canning's views on the Catholic Question were not well received by the most conservative Tories, including the Duke of Wellington. As a result, the ministry was forced to include Whigs.
Declining health and death
George's heavy drinking and indulgent lifestyle had taken their toll on his health by the late 1820s. While still Prince of Wales, he had become obese through his huge banquets and copious consumption of alcohol, making him the target of ridicule on the rare occasions that he appeared in public;[64] by 1797, his weight had reached 17 stone 7 pounds (111 kg; 245 lb).[65] By 1824, his corset was made for a waist of 50 inches (130 cm).[66] He had gout, arteriosclerosis, peripheral edema ("dropsy"), and possibly porphyria. In his last years, he spent whole days in bed and had acute and serious spasms of breathlessness.[5]
George's last years were marked by increasing physical and mental decay and withdrawal from public affairs. Privately, a senior aide to the King confided to his diary: "A more contemptible, cowardly, selfish, unfeeling dog does not exist ... There have been good and wise kings but not many of them ... and this I believe to be one of the worst."
By the spring of 1830, George's imminent end was apparent. Now largely confined to his bedchambers, having completely lost sight in one eye and describing himself "as blind as a beetle", he was forced to approve legislation with a stamp of his signature in the presence of witnesses.[70] His weight was recorded to be 20 stone (130 kg; 280 lb).[71] Attacks of breathlessness due to dropsy forced him to sleep upright in a chair, and doctors frequently tapped his abdomen in order to drain excess fluid.[68] Despite his obvious decline, George was admired for clinging doggedly to life.[72] His will to live and still-prodigious appetite astonished observers; in April 1830, the Duke of Wellington wrote that the King had consumed for breakfast "a Pidgeon and Beef Steak Pye ... Three parts of a bottle of Mozelle, a Glass of Dry Champagne, two Glasses of Port [and] a Glass of Brandy", followed by a large dose of laudanum.[70] Writing to Maria Fitzherbert in June, the King's doctor, Sir Henry Halford, noted "His Majesty's constitution is a gigantic one, and his elasticity under the most severe pressure exceeds what I have ever witnessed in thirty-eight years' experience."[73] Though George had been under Halford's care since the time of the Regency, the doctor's social ambitions and perceived lack of competence were strongly criticised, with The Lancet labelling Halford's bulletins on the King's health as "utterly and entirely destitute of information", subsequently characterising Halford's treatment of George, which involved administering both opium and laudanum as sedatives, as appearing to lack sense or direction.[74]
George dictated his will in May and became very devout in his final months, confessing to an archdeacon that he repented of his dissolute life, but hoped mercy would be shown to him as he had always tried to do the best for his subjects.[68] By June, he was unable to lie down, and received the Sacrament on 14 June in the presence of Lady Conyngham, Halford, and a clergyman.[73] While Halford only informed the Cabinet on 24 June that "the King's cough continues with considerable expectoration", he privately told his wife that "things are coming to a conclusion ... I shall be released about Monday."[75]
At about three in the morning of 26 June 1830 at Windsor Castle, George awoke and passed a bowel movement – "a large
Legacy
George's only legitimate child, Charlotte, had died from
George was described as the "First Gentleman of England" on account of his style and manners.[81] He was bright, clever, and knowledgeable, but his laziness and gluttony led him to squander much of his talent. The Times wrote that he would always prefer "a girl and a bottle to politics and a sermon".[82]
The Regency period saw a shift in fashion that was largely determined by George. After political opponents put a tax on wig powder, he abandoned wearing a powdered wig in favour of natural hair.[83] He wore darker colours than had been previously fashionable as they helped to disguise his size, favoured pantaloons and trousers over knee breeches because they were looser, and popularised a high collar with neck cloth because it hid his double chin.[84] His visit to Scotland in 1822 led to the revival, if not the creation, of Scottish tartan dress as it is known today.[85]
During the political crisis caused by Catholic emancipation, the Duke of Wellington said that George was "the worst man he ever fell in with his whole life, the most selfish, the most false, the most ill-natured, the most entirely without one redeeming quality".[86] However, his eulogy delivered in the House of Lords called George "the most accomplished man of his age" and praised his knowledge and talent.[87] Wellington's true feelings were probably somewhere between these two extremes; as he said later, George was "a magnificent patron of the arts ... the most extraordinary compound of talent, wit, buffoonery, obstinacy, and good feeling—in short a medley of the most opposite qualities, with a great preponderance of good—that I ever saw in any character in my life."[87]
Upon George's death, The Times captured elite opinion succinctly: "There never was an individual less regretted by his fellow-creatures than this deceased king. What eye has wept for him? What heart has heaved one throb of unmercenary sorrow? ... If he ever had a friend – a devoted friend in any rank of life – we protest that the name of him or her never reached us".[88]
There are many statues of George IV, a large number of which were erected during his reign. In the United Kingdom, they include a
In Edinburgh, "
Titles, styles, honours, and arms
Titles and styles
At birth, George was entitled to the dignities Prince of Great Britain and Ireland, Electoral Prince of Brunswick-Lüneburg, Duke of Cornwall, and Duke of Rothesay.[92] Under the Act of Parliament that instituted the regency, the prince's formal title as regent was "Regent of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland".[93]
Honours
National honours
- 26 December 1765: Royal Knight of the Garter[92]
- 21 November 1783: Privy Counsellor[92]
- 26 January 1789: Fellow of the Royal Society[92]
- 2 May 1810: Doctor of Civil Law, University of Oxford[92]
- 28 April 1818: Founder of the Most Distinguished Order of St Michael and St George[94]
- Royal Hanoverian Guelphic Order[95]
Foreign honours
- Russian Empire:
- 25 November 1813: Knight of St. Andrew[92]
- 20 April 1814: Knight of St. Alexander Nevsky[92]
- Kingdom of Prussia: 11 April 1814: Knight of the Black Eagle[96]
- Knight of the Holy Spirit[92]
- Spain: 5 July 1814: Grand Cross of the Order of Charles III[97]
- Kingdom of Portugal: 7 April 1815: Sash of the Three Orders[98]
- Austrian Empire:
- 8 June 1815: Knight of the Golden Fleece[98]
- 1819: Grand Cross of St. Stephen[99]
- 8 June 1815:
- Knight of the Elephant[100]
- Two Sicilies:
- Grand Cross of the Military William Order[102]
- Knight of St. Hubert[103]
Military appointments
- 1782: Colonel, British Army[92]
- 1796–1820: Colonel of the 10th Light Dragoons[92]
Arms
George's
As king, George's arms were those of his two kingdoms, the United Kingdom and Hanover, superimposed: Quarterly, I and IV Gules three lions
Ancestry
Ancestors of George IV Princess Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz | | ||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
14. Ernest Frederick I, Duke of Saxe-Hildburghausen | |||||||||||||
7. Princess Elisabeth Albertine of Saxe-Hildburghausen | |||||||||||||
15. Countess Sophia Albertine of Erbach-Erbach | |||||||||||||
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Works cited
- ISBN 0-8021-3703-2.
- ISBN 0-7509-1821-7.
- Derry, John W. (1963). The Regency Crisis and the Whigs. Cambridge University Press.
- Garrett, Natalee (2022). "Royalty, Celebrity, and the Press in Georgian Britain, 1770-1820". Royal Studies Journal. 9 (2): 99–115.
- ISBN 0-582-12675-4.
- Hibbert, Christopher (1973). George IV, Regent and King, 1811–1830. London: Allen Lane. ISBN 0-7139-0487-9.
- Hibbert, Christopher (2008) [2004]. "George IV (1762–1830)". doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/10541. (Subscription or UK public library membershiprequired.)
- Innes, Arthur Donald (1914). A History of England and the British Empire. Vol. 3. The MacMillan Company.
- Innes, Arthur Donald (1915). A History of England and the British Empire. Vol. 4. The MacMillan Company.
- Parissien, Steven (2001). George IV: The Grand Entertainment. London: John Murray. ISBN 0-7195-5652-X.
- Prebble, John (1988). The King's Jaunt: George IV in Scotland, 1822. London: Collins. ISBN 9-780002-154048.
- ISBN 0-300-07685-1.
Further reading
- Machin, G. I. T. (1964). The Catholic Question in English Politics 1820 to 1830. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- ISBN 978-0-434-60357-2.
- Raymond, John (1962). "King George IV: A Reappraisal". History Today. 12 (8, 9): 538–547, 614–621.
- Richardson, Joanna. The Disastrous Marriage: A Study of George IV and Caroline of Brunswick. London: Jonathan Cape, 1960
- Richardson, Joanna. George IV. A Portrait. London: Sidgwick & Jackson, 1966
External links
- Media related to George IV of the United Kingdom at Wikimedia Commons
- George IV at the official website of the British monarchy
- George IV at the official website of the Royal Collection Trust
- George IV at BBC History
- Portraits of King George IV at the National Portrait Gallery, London