George I of Great Britain
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George I (George Louis; German: Georg Ludwig; 28 May 1660 – 11 June 1727)
Born in
A succession of European wars expanded George's German domains during his lifetime; he was ratified as
During George's reign the powers of the monarchy diminished, and Britain began a transition to the modern system of
Early life
George was born on 28 May 1660 in the city of
For the first year of his life George was the only heir to the German territories of his father and three childless uncles. George's brother, Frederick Augustus, was born in 1661, and the two boys (known respectively by the family as "Görgen" and "Gustchen") were brought up together. In 1662 the family moved to Osnabrück when Ernest Augustus was appointed ruler of the Prince-Bishopric of Osnabrück, while his older brother George William ruled in Hanover. They lived at Iburg Castle outside the city until 1673 when they moved to the newly completed Schloss Osnabrück.[4] The parents were absent for almost a year (1664–1665) during a long convalescent holiday in Italy but Sophia corresponded regularly with her sons' governess and took a great interest in their upbringing, even more so upon her return.[5] Sophia bore Ernest Augustus another four sons and a daughter. In her letters Sophia describes George as a responsible, conscientious child who set an example to his younger brothers and sisters.[6]
By 1675 George's eldest uncle had died without issue, but his remaining two uncles had married, putting George's inheritance in jeopardy, for his uncles' estates might pass to their own sons, were they to have any, instead of to George. George's father took him hunting and riding and introduced him to military matters; mindful of his uncertain future, Ernest Augustus took the fifteen-year-old George on campaign in the Franco-Dutch War with the deliberate purpose of testing and training his son in battle.[7]
In 1679 another uncle died unexpectedly without sons, and Ernest Augustus became reigning Duke of
Marriage
In 1682 George married Sophia Dorothea of Celle, the daughter of his uncle George William, thereby securing additional incomes that would have been outside Salic laws. This marriage of state was arranged primarily to ensure a healthy annual income, and assisted the eventual unification of Hanover and Celle. His mother at first opposed the marriage because she looked down on Sophia Dorothea's mother, Eleonore (who came from lower nobility), and because she was concerned by Sophia Dorothea's legitimated status. She was eventually won over by the advantages inherent in the marriage.[9]
In 1683, George and his brother Frederick Augustus served in the Great Turkish War at the Battle of Vienna, and Sophia Dorothea bore George a son, George Augustus. The following year, Frederick Augustus was informed of the adoption of primogeniture, meaning he would no longer receive part of his father's territory as he had expected. This led to a breach between Frederick Augustus and his father, and between the brothers, that lasted until his death in battle in 1690. With the imminent formation of a single Hanoverian state, and the Hanoverians' continuing contributions to the Empire's wars, Ernest Augustus was made an Elector of the Holy Roman Empire in 1692. George's prospects were now better than ever as the sole heir to his father's electorate and his uncle's duchy.[10]
Sophia Dorothea had a second child, a daughter named after her, in 1687, but there were no other pregnancies. The couple became estranged—George preferred the company of his mistress,
George's marriage to Sophia Dorothea was dissolved, not on the grounds that either of them had committed adultery, but on the grounds that Sophia Dorothea had abandoned her husband. With her father's agreement, George had Sophia Dorothea imprisoned in Ahlden House in her native Celle, where she stayed until she died more than thirty years later. She was denied access to her children and father, forbidden to remarry and only allowed to walk unaccompanied within the mansion courtyard. She was, however, endowed with an income, establishment, and servants, and allowed to ride in a carriage outside her castle under supervision.[13] Melusine von der Schulenburg acted as George's hostess openly from 1698 until his death, and they had three daughters together, born in 1692, 1693 and 1701.[14]
Electoral reign
Ernest Augustus died on 23 January 1698, leaving all of his territories to George with the exception of the
Shortly after George's accession to his paternal duchy, Prince William, Duke of Gloucester, who was second-in-line to the English and Scottish thrones, died. By the terms of the English Act of Settlement 1701, George's mother, Sophia, was designated as the heir to the English throne if the then reigning monarch, William III, and his sister-in-law, Anne, died without surviving issue. The succession was so designed because Sophia was the closest Protestant relative of the British royal family. Fifty-six Catholics with superior hereditary claims were bypassed.[16] The likelihood of any of them converting to Protestantism for the sake of the succession was remote; some had already refused.[17]
In August 1701, George was invested with the
Shortly after George's accession in Hanover, the
In 1706, the
In 1709, George resigned as field marshal, never to go on active service again. In 1710, he was granted the dignity of
Accession in Great Britain and Ireland
Though both England and Scotland recognised Anne as their queen, only the
George's mother, the Electress Sophia, died on 28 May 1714[d] at the age of 83. She had collapsed in the gardens at Herrenhausen after rushing to shelter from a shower of rain. George was now Queen Anne's heir presumptive. He swiftly revised the membership of the Regency Council that would take power after Anne's death, as it was known that Anne's health was failing and politicians in Britain were jostling for power.[29] She suffered a stroke, which left her unable to speak, and died on 1 August 1714. The list of regents was opened, the members sworn in, and George was proclaimed King of Great Britain and King of Ireland.[30] Partly due to contrary winds, which kept him in The Hague awaiting passage,[31] he did not arrive in Britain until 18 September. George was crowned at Westminster Abbey on 20 October.[3] His coronation was accompanied by rioting in over twenty towns in England.[32]
George mainly lived in Great Britain after 1714, though he visited his home in Hanover in 1716, 1719, 1720, 1723 and 1725.[33] In total, George spent about one fifth of his reign as king in Germany.[34] A clause in the Act of Settlement that forbade the British monarch from leaving the country without Parliament's permission was unanimously repealed in 1716.[35] During all but the first of the King's absences, power was vested in a Regency Council rather than in his son, George Augustus, Prince of Wales.[36]
Wars and rebellions
Within a year of George's accession the
George's distrust of the Tories aided the passing of power to the Whigs.[38] Whig dominance grew to be so great under George that the Tories did not return to power for another half-century. After the election, the Whig-dominated Parliament passed the Septennial Act 1715, which extended the maximum duration of Parliament to seven years (although it could be dissolved earlier by the Sovereign).[39] Thus Whigs already in power could remain in such a position for a greater period of time.[40]
After his accession in Great Britain, George's relationship with his son (which had always been poor) worsened.
George was active in directing British foreign policy during his early reign. In 1717, he contributed to the creation of the
Spain supported a Jacobite-led invasion of Scotland in 1719, but stormy seas allowed only about three hundred Spanish troops to reach Scotland.
Ministries
In Hanover, the King was an
In 1715 when the Whigs came to power, George's chief ministers included Robert Walpole, Lord Townshend (Walpole's brother-in-law), Lord Stanhope and Lord Sunderland. In 1717 Townshend was dismissed, and Walpole resigned from the Cabinet over disagreements with their colleagues;[43] Stanhope became supreme in foreign affairs, and Sunderland the same in domestic matters.[51]
Lord Sunderland's power began to wane in 1719. He introduced a Peerage Bill that attempted to limit the size of the House of Lords by restricting new creations. The measure would have solidified Sunderland's control of the House by preventing the creation of opposition peers, but it was defeated after Walpole led the opposition to the bill by delivering what was considered "the most brilliant speech of his career".[52] Walpole and Townshend were reappointed as ministers the following year and a new, supposedly unified, Whig government formed.[52]
Greater problems arose over financial speculation and the management of the national debt. Certain government bonds could not be redeemed without the consent of the bondholder and had been issued when interest rates were high; consequently each bond represented a long-term drain on public finances, as bonds were hardly ever redeemed.[53] In 1719, the South Sea Company proposed to take over £31 million (three fifths) of the British national debt by exchanging government securities for stock in the company.[54] The Company bribed Lord Sunderland, George's mistress Melusine von der Schulenburg, and Lord Stanhope's cousin, Secretary of the Treasury Charles Stanhope, to support their plan.[55] The Company enticed bondholders to convert their high-interest, irredeemable bonds to low-interest, easily tradeable stocks by offering apparently preferential financial gains.[56] Company prices rose rapidly; the shares had cost £128 on 1 January 1720,[57] but were valued at £500 when the conversion scheme opened in May.[58] On 24 June the price reached a peak of £1,050.[59] The company's success led to the speculative flotation of other companies, some of a bogus nature,[60] and the Government, in an attempt to suppress these schemes and with the support of the company, passed the Bubble Act.[61] With the rise in the market now halted,[62] uncontrolled selling began in August, which caused the stock to plummet to £150 by the end of September. Many individuals—including aristocrats—lost vast sums and some were completely ruined.[63] George, who had been in Hanover since June, returned to London in November—sooner than he wanted or was usual—at the request of the ministry.[64]
The economic crisis, known as the South Sea Bubble, made George and his ministers extremely unpopular.[65] In 1721, Lord Stanhope, though personally innocent,[66] collapsed and died after a stressful debate in the House of Lords, and Lord Sunderland resigned from public office.
Sunderland, however, retained a degree of personal influence with George until his sudden death in 1722 allowed the rise of Robert Walpole. Walpole became de facto Prime Minister, although the title was not formally applied to him (officially, he was First Lord of the Treasury and Chancellor of the Exchequer). His management of the South Sea crisis, by rescheduling the debts and arranging some compensation, helped the return to financial stability.[67] Through Walpole's skilful management of Parliament, George managed to avoid direct implication in the company's fraudulent actions.[68] Claims that George had received free stock as a bribe[69] are not supported by evidence; indeed receipts in the Royal Archives show that he paid for his subscriptions and that he lost money in the crash.[70]
Later years
As requested by Walpole, George revived the Order of the Bath in 1725, which enabled Walpole to reward or gain political supporters by offering them the honour.[71] Walpole became extremely powerful and was largely able to appoint ministers of his own choosing. Unlike his predecessor, Queen Anne, George rarely attended meetings of the cabinet; most of his communications were in private, and he only exercised substantial influence with respect to British foreign policy. With the aid of Lord Townshend, he arranged for the ratification by Great Britain, France and Prussia of the Treaty of Hanover, which was designed to counterbalance the Austro-Spanish Treaty of Vienna and protect British trade.[72]
George, although increasingly reliant on Walpole, could still have replaced his ministers at will. Walpole was actually afraid of being removed from office towards the end of George I's reign,
George was succeeded by his son, George Augustus, who took the throne as George II. It was widely assumed, even by Walpole for a time, that George II planned to remove Walpole from office but was dissuaded from doing so by his wife, Caroline of Ansbach. However, Walpole commanded a substantial majority in Parliament and George II had little choice but to retain him or risk ministerial instability.[76]
Legacy
George was ridiculed by his British subjects;
The British perceived George as too German, and in the opinion of historian
His heart was in Hanover ... He was more than fifty years of age when he came amongst us: we took him because we wanted him, because he served our turn; we laughed at his uncouth German ways, and sneered at him. He took our loyalty for what it was worth; laid hands on what money he could; kept us assuredly from Popery ... I, for one, would have been on his side in those days. Cynical and selfish, as he was, he was better than a king out of St. Germains [James, the Stuart Pretender] with the French king's orders in his pocket, and a swarm of Jesuits in his train.[83]
Writers of the nineteenth century, such as Thackeray,
Some historians have exaggerated the king's indifference to English affairs and made his ignorance of the English language seem more important than it was. He had little difficulty in communicating with his ministers in French, and his interest in all matters affecting both foreign policy and the court was profound.[85]
Yet the character of George I remains elusive; he was in turn genial and affectionate in private letters to his daughter, and then dull and awkward in public. Perhaps his own mother summed him up when "explaining to those who regarded him as cold and overserious that he could be jolly, that he took things to heart, that he felt deeply and sincerely and was more sensitive than he cared to show."[6] Whatever his true character, he ascended a precarious throne, and either by political wisdom and guile, or through accident and indifference, he left it secure in the hands of the Hanoverians and of Parliament.[34]
Arms
As King his arms were:
Arms of George I Louis as Elector-Designate of Hanover 1689–1708 | Arms of George I Louis as Elector of Hanover 1708–1714 | Coat of arms of George I as King of Great Britain 1714–1727 |
Issue and mistresses
Issue
Name | Birth | Death | Marriage |
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By his wife, Sophia Dorothea of Celle: | |||
George II of Great Britain | 9 November 1683 | 25 October 1760 | Married 1705 Caroline of Ansbach; had issue |
Sophia Dorothea of Hanover | 26 March 1687 | 28 June 1757 | Married 1706 Frederick William, Margrave of Brandenburg (later Frederick William I of Prussia); had issue |
By his mistress, Melusine von der Schulenburg: | |||
(Anna) Louise Sophia von der Schulenburg | January 1692 | 1773 | Married 1707 Ernst August Philipp von dem Bussche-Ippenburg (divorced before 1714);[87] created Countess of Delitz by Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor, in 1722[14] |
(Petronilla) Melusina von der Schulenburg | 1693 | 1778 | Created Countess of Walsingham for life; married 1733 Philip Stanhope, 4th Earl of Chesterfield; no issue[88] |
Margarethe Gertrud von Oeynhausen | 1701 | 1726 | Married 1722 Albrecht Wolfgang, Count of Schaumburg-Lippe[14]
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Dates in this table are New Style. |
Mistresses
In addition to Melusine von der Schulenburg, three other women were said to be George's mistresses:[89][90]
- Leonora von Meyseburg-Züschen, widow of a Chamberlain at the court of Hanover, and secondly married to Lieutenant-General de Weyhe. Leonore was the sister of Clara Elisabeth von Meyseburg-Züschen, Countess von Platen, who had been the mistress of George I's father, Ernest Augustus, Elector of Hanover.[90]
- Sophia Charlotte von Platen, later Countess of Darlington (1673 – 20 April 1725), shown by Ragnhild Hatton in 1978 to have been George's half-sister and not his mistress.[82]
- Baroness Sophie Caroline Eva Antoinette von Offeln (2 November 1669 – 23 January 1726),[89] known as the "Young Countess von Platen", she married Count Ernst August von Platen, the brother of Sophia Charlotte, in 1697.[90]
Ancestry
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Notes
- ^ a b c d Throughout George's life, Great Britain used the Old Style Julian calendar. Hanover adopted the New Style Gregorian calendar on 1 March 1700 (N.S.) / 19 February 1700 (O.S.). Old Style is used for dates in this article unless otherwise indicated; however, years are assumed to start from 1 January and not 25 March, which was the English New Year.
- Electress Sophia in her Memoiren der Herzogin Sophie nachmals Kurfürstin von Hannover (ed. A. Köcher, Leipzig, 1879, pp. 1 and 68) who says that her two eldest sons were born at Hanover, and by four notifications from Hanover to the court at Wolfenbüttel preserved in the Wolfenbüttel state archives.[2]
- ^ The Prince-Bishopric was not an hereditary title; instead it alternated between Protestant and Roman Catholic incumbents.
- ^ 8 June in the New Style Gregorian calendar adopted by Hanover in 1700.
- ^ 22 June in the New Style Gregorian calendar adopted by Hanover in 1700.
References
- ^ Brunner, Daniel L. (2006). "Anglican Perceptions of Lutheranism in Early Hanoverian England" (PDF). Lutheran Quarterly. XX: 63–82. Archived (PDF) from the original on 12 November 2020.
George was a Lutheran in Hanover, a Presbyterian in Scotland and an Anglican in England
- "The Hanoverians are here!". Historic Royal Palaces. 2022.
the monarch could only be Anglican
- "George I". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2022.
all British monarchs must be Protestants of the Church of England
- "Act of Settlement". The Royal Family. 2022.
The Sovereign now had to swear to maintain the Church of England (and after 1707, the Church of Scotland)
- "The Hanoverians are here!". Historic Royal Palaces. 2022.
- ISBN 978-2-901138-03-7.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-7126-7448-5.
- ^ Memoiren der Kurfürstin Sophie von Hannover: Ein höfisches Lebensbild aus dem 17. Jahrhundert (Memoirs of the Electress Sophia of Hanover: A courtly portrait of life from the 17th century), edited by Martina Trauschke, publisher Wallstein Verlag, Göttingen 2014, pp. 68–69.
- ^ Hatton, pp. 26–28.
- ^ a b Hatton, p. 29.
- ^ Hatton, p. 34.
- ^ Hatton, p. 30.
- ^ Hatton, pp. 36, 42.
- ^ Hatton, pp. 43–46.
- ^ a b Hatton, pp. 51–61.
- ISBN 978-0-7394-2025-6.
- ^ Hatton, pp. 60–64.
- ^ doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/24834 (subscription or UK public library membershiprequired)
- ^ Schemmel, B. "Hanover". rulers.org. Retrieved 21 August 2007.
- ISBN 978-0-563-53747-2.
- ^ Hatton, p. 74.
- ^ Hatton, pp. 75–76.
- ^ Hatton, pp. 77–78.
- ^ Hatton, p. 90.
- ^ Hatton, pp. 86–89.
- ^ Hatton, pp. 101–104, 122.
- ^ Hatton, p. 104.
- ^ Velde, François R. (26 September 2006). "Holy Roman Empire". Heraldica. Retrieved 20 August 2007.
- ^ "Relations Worsen". Scotland 1689–1707. National Records of Scotland. Retrieved 12 October 2020.
- ^ Text of the Union with Scotland Act 1706 as in force today (including any amendments) within the United Kingdom, from legislation.gov.uk.
- ^ "The Treaty of Union". Scottish Parliament. Archived from the original on 18 May 2007. Retrieved 20 August 2007.
- ^ Hatton, p. 119.
- ^ Hatton, p. 108.
- ^ Hatton, p. 109.
- ^ Hatton, p. 123.
- ISBN 978-0-521-44793-5.
- ^ Hatton, p. 158.
- ^ a b c d Gibbs (2004).
- ^ a b Plumb, J. H. (1956). The First Four Georges.
- ^ "George I". Official web site of the British monarchy. 30 December 2015. Retrieved 18 April 2016.
- ^ Hatton, pp. 174–179.
- ^ Williams, pp. 151–152.
- ^ "Septennial Act 1715 (c.38)". UK Statute Law Database, Ministry of Justice. Archived from the original on 30 September 2007. Retrieved 20 August 2007.
- S2CID 143559342.
- ^ Hatton, pp. 199–202.
- ^ Hatton, pp. 207–208.
- ^ a b Dickinson, p. 49.
- .
- ^ Elliott, J.H. (2017). "The Road to Utrecht: War and Peace". Britain, Spain and the Treaty of Utrecht 1713–2013. Routledge. pp. 3–8.
- ^ Hatton, p. 239.
- ISBN 978-0-413-39650-1.
- ISBN 978-0-7190-3774-0.
- ^ Hatton, p. 238.
- ^ Williams, pp. 13–14.
- ^ Carswell, p. 72.
- ^ a b Hatton, pp. 244–246.
- ^ Carswell, p. 103.
- ^ Carswell, p. 104; Hatton, p. 249 and Williams, p. 176.
- ^ Carswell, p. 115 and Hatton, p. 251.
- ^ Carswell, pp. 151–152; Dickinson, p. 58; and Hatton, p. 250.
- ^ Erleigh, p. 65.
- ^ Erleigh, p. 70.
- ^ Dickinson, p. 58; Erleigh, pp. 77, 104; and Hatton, p. 251.
- ^ Dickinson, p. 59 and Erleigh, pp. 72, 90–96.
- ^ Dickinson, p. 59 and Erleigh, pp. 99–100.
- ^ Dickinson, p. 59.
- ^ Erleigh, pp. 112–117.
- ^ Erleigh, p. 125 and Hatton, p. 254.
- ^ Erleigh, pp. 147–155 and Williams, p. 177.
- ^ Erleigh, p. 129; Hatton, p. 255; Williams, p. 176; Black, Walpole in Power, p. 20.
- ^ Black, Walpole in Power, pp. 19–20, and Dickinson, pp. 61–62.
- ^ Dickinson, p. 63.
- ^ e.g. Black, Walpole in Power, pp. 19–20.
- ^ Hatton, pp. 251–253.
- ^ "Order of the Bath". Official website of the British monarchy. Archived from the original on 2 January 2012. Retrieved 7 September 2009.
- ^ Hatton, p. 274.
- ^ "George I" (1911). Encyclopædia Britannica, 11th edition. London: Cambridge University Press.
- ^ Hatton, p. 282.
- ^ Knocke, Helmut; Thielen, Hugo (2007). "Mausoleum". Hannover. Kunst- und Kultur-Lexikon (in German) (4th ed.). p. 92.
- ^ Black, Walpole in Power, pp. 29–31, 53, and 61.
- ^ a b Hatton, p. 291.
- ^ Hatton, p. 172.
- ^ Hatton, p. 131.
- ISBN 978-1-84119-096-9.
- ISBN 978-1-5064-6458-9. Retrieved 13 January 2022.
- ^ a b Hatton, pp. 132–136.
- ^ Thackeray, W. M. (1880) [1860]. The Four Georges: Sketches of Manners, Morals, Court and Town Life. London: Smith, Elder. pp. 52–53.
- ^ Smith, pp. 3–9.
- ^ Plumb, J. H. (1967). "George I". Collier's Encyclopedia. Vol. 10. p. 703.
- ISBN 978-0-900455-25-4.
- ^ Hatton, p. 411.
- doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/24835 (subscription or UK public library membershiprequired)
- ^ a b Beaucaire, Charles-Prosper-Maurice Horric de (1884). Une mésalliance dans la maison de Brunswick (1665–1725): Eléonore Desmier d'Oldbreuze, duchesse de Zell (in French). H. Oudin. p. 128.
- ^ a b c Cokayne, George E. (1910). The complete peerage of England, Scotland, Ireland, Great Britain and the United Kingdom, extant, extinct, or dormant. Vol. 7. London: St Catherine Press. pp. 111–112.
Sources
- ISBN 978-0-7509-2523-5.
- OL 5802080M.
- OL 5079587M.
- Erleigh, Viscount (1933). The South Sea Bubble. Manchester: Peter Davies Ltd.
- Gibbs, G.C. (September 2004). "George I (1660–1727)". doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/10538. (Subscription or UK public library membershiprequired.)
- ISBN 978-0-500-25060-0.
- OL 6204050M.
- Smith, Hannah (2006). Georgian Monarchy: Politics and Culture, 1714–1760. ISBN 978-0-521-82876-5.
- Williams, Basil (1962). The Whig Supremacy 1714–1760. Revised by C.H. Stuart (2nd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Further reading
- JSTOR 559897.
- —— (1967). The English Court in the Reign of George I. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- OL 28782100M.
- Bultmann, William A. (1966). "Early Hanoverian England (1714–1760): Some Recent Writings". In Chapin Furber, Elizabeth (ed.). Changing views on British history: essays on historical writing since 1939. OL 5990518M.
- Ellis, Kenneth L. (1969). "The administrative connections between Britain and Hanover". Journal of the Society of Archivists. 3 (10): 546–566. .
- Konigs, Philip (1993). The Hanoverian kings and their homeland: a study of the Personal Union, 1714–1837.
- Marlow, Joyce (1973). The life and times of George I. Introduction by ISBN 978-0-2977-6592-9.
- Michael, Wolfgang (1936–1939). England under George I (2 volumes). Translated/adapted by Lewis Namier.
External links
- George I at the official website of the British monarchy
- George I at the official website of the Royal Collection Trust
- George I at BBC History
- Portraits of King George I at the National Portrait Gallery, London