Georges Danton
Georges Danton | |
---|---|
Jean Bon Saint-André | |
Succeeded by | Marie-Jean Hérault de Séchelles |
Deputy in the National Convention | |
In office 20 September 1792 – 5 April 1794 | |
Constituency | Seine |
Personal details | |
Born | Cordeliers Club (1790–1794) (1793-1794)Indulgents | 26 October 1759
Spouses | |
Children | 3 |
Parent(s) | Jacques Danton Mary Camus |
Occupation | Lawyer, politician |
Signature | |
Georges Jacques Danton (French:
During the Insurrection of 31 May – 2 June 1793 he changed his mind on the use of force and lost his seat in the committee afterwards, which solidified the rivalry between Danton and Robespierre. In early October 1793, he left politics but was urged to return to Paris to plead, as a moderate, for an end to the Terror. Danton's continual criticism of the Committee of Public Safety provoked further counter-attacks. Robespierre replied to Danton's plea for an end to the Terror on 25 December (5 Nivôse, year II). At the end of March 1794, Danton made another speech announcing the end of the Terror.[3] Within a week, Danton faced accusations of purported royalist inclinations, leading to his trial and subsequent guillotine execution on charges of conspiracy and venality.
Danton's role in the onset of the Revolution has been disputed, especially during the
Early life
Danton was born in
- François, born in May 1788, died in infancy on 24 April 1789.[11]
- Antoine, born on 18 June 1790, died on 14 June 1858.
- François Georges, born on 2 February 1792, died on 18 June 1848.[11]
Revolution
In the Spring of 1789, Danton found his revolutionary beginnings as one of the many people giving speeches to the crowds gathered in the
His house in the Rue des Cordeliers was open to many people from the neighborhood. Danton,
On 27 April 1790, he became president of the Club de Cordeliers. On 2 August, Bailly became Paris' first elected mayor; Danton had 49 votes, Marat and Louis XVI only one each.[19][20] In spring 1791, Danton suddenly began investing in property, in or near his birthplace, on a large scale.[21]
Robespierre, Pétion, Danton, and Brissot dominated the Jacobin Club. On 17 July 1791, Danton initiated a petition. Robespierre went to the Jacobin club to cancel the draft of the petition, according to Albert Mathiez. Robespierre persuaded the Jacobin clubs not to support the petition by Danton and Brissot.[22] After the Champ de Mars massacre, a series of repressive measures against the heads of popular societies forced him to take refuge in Arcis-sur-Aube, then in England, and he lived in London for a few weeks.[23] Since Jean-Paul Marat, Danton, and Robespierre were no longer delegates of the Assembly, politics often took place outside the meeting hall.
After the amnesty voted in the Assembly on 13 September 1791, Danton returned to Paris. He attempted election to the new Legislative Assembly, but the opposition of the moderates in the electoral assembly of Paris prevented him from doing so. In December 1791, during the partial renewal of the municipality, marked by a strong abstention, with the defeat of LaFayette at the town hall in the post of resigning Bailly marking the decline of the "constitutional" party which had until then dominated the Hôtel de Ville, he was elected second deputy procureur public of the Commune. In the debate on the war which began between Jacobins at the beginning of December 1791 and saw the birth of the opposition between Montagnards and Girondins, he hesitated on the need for war and lent more towards Robespierre than the pro-war Brissot without actively engaging.[24]
1792
On 9 August 1792, Danton returned from Arcis. In the evening before the
Danton seems to have dined almost every day at the Rolands.[27] On 28 August, the Assembly ordered a curfew for the next two days.[28] At the behest of Danton, thirty commissioners from the sections were ordered to search in every suspect house for weapons, munition, swords, carriages and horses.[29][30] By 2 September, between 520 and 1,000 people were taken into custody on the flimsiest of warrants. The exact number of those arrested will never be known.[31]
On Sunday 2 September, at about 13:00, Danton, as a member of the provisional government, delivered a speech in the assembly: "We ask that anyone refusing to give personal service or to furnish arms shall be punished with death".
He did intervene, however, in protecting Roland and Brissot from an arrest warrant from the Supervisory Committee of the Commune on 4 September, opposing Marat by having the mandates removed, and was complicit in the escape of
At the new National Convention on 4 October 1792, Danton proposed to declare that the fatherland was no longer in danger, asking only to renounce extreme measures. He measured the risks posed to the Revolution by fratricidal quarrels between Republicans. He preached conciliation and calls the Assembly several times to "holy harmony". “It was in vain that we complained to Danton about the Girondine faction", wrote Robespierre, "he maintained that there was no faction there and that everything was the result of vanity and personal animosities". But the attacks from the Girondins concentrated on him, Marat and Robespierre—the “triumvirs”—accused of aspiring to dictatorship. Danton defends Robespierre at the end of October by declaring that "all those who talk about the Robespierre faction are, in my eyes, either prejudiced men or bad citizens", but dissociates himself from Marat by pronouncing "I don't like the individual Marat. I say frankly that I have experiences his temperament: he is volcanic, cantankerous and unsociable." The Girondins attacked Danton for his management of the secret funds of the Ministry of Justice. Roland, Minister of the Interior, scrupulously gave his accounts but Danton would not. Harassed by Brissot, he only escaped through weariness of the Convention and for months the Girondins shouted “And the accounts?" to interrupt him at the podium. Meanwhile, his influence began to decline in favor of Robespierre as the real leader of the Mountain.
1793
On 10 February 1793, while Danton was on a mission in Belgium, his wife died while giving birth to their fourth child, who also died. Robespierre sent Danton a message.[40] Danton was so affected by their deaths that he recruited the sculptor Claude André Deseine and, a week after Charpentier's death, brought him to Sainte-Catherine cemetery to exhume her body and execute a plaster bust of her appearance.[41][42]
On 10 March, Danton supported the foundation of a
On 1 June
On 1 July 1793, Danton married Louise Sébastienne Gély, aged 17, daughter of Marc-Antoine Gély, court usher (huissier-audiencier) at the
Reign of Terror
On 6 September, Danton refused to take a seat in the Comité de Salut Public, declaring that he would join no committee, but would be a spur to them all.[49] He believed a stable government was needed which could resist the orders of the Comité de Salut Public.[50] On 10 October, Danton, who had been dangerously ill for a few weeks,[51] quit politics, and set off to Arcis-sur-Aube with his 16-year-old wife, who had pitied Queen Marie Antoinette since her trial began.[52] On 18 November, after the arrest of François Chabot, Edme-Bonaventure Courtois urged Danton to come back to Paris to again play a role in politics.
On 22 November, Danton attacked religious persecution and demanded frugality with human lives. He tried to weaken the Terror by attacking
On 9 December, Danton became embroiled in a scandal concerning the bankruptcy proceedings of the French East India Company, when it was discovered that directors of the company had bribed certain government officials to allow the company to liquidate its own assets, rather than the government controlling the process.[55] By December, a Dantonist party had been formed in support of Danton's more moderate views and his insistence on clemency for those who had violated the Committee for Public Safety's increasingly arbitrary and Draconian "counter-revolutionary" measures.[49] On 25 December (5 Nivôse, year II) Robespierre replied to Danton's plea for an end to the Terror.
The
On 26 February 1794, Saint-Just delivered a speech before the Convention in which he directed the assault against Danton, claiming that the Dantonists wanted to slow down the Terror and the Revolution. It seems Danton became exasperated by Robespierre's repeated references to virtue. On 6 March,
While the Committee of Public Safety was concerned with strengthening the centralist policies of the convention and its own grip over that body, Danton was in the process of devising a plan that would effectively move popular sentiment among delegates towards a more moderate stance.
The
Ultimately, Danton himself would become a victim of the Terror. In attempting to shift the direction of the revolution by collaborating with Camille Desmoulins on the production of Le Vieux Cordelier – a newspaper that called for the end of the official Terror and Dechristianization, as well as for launching new peace overtures to France's enemies – Danton had placed himself in a precarious position. Those most closely associated with the Committee of Public Safety, among them key figures such as Maximilien Robespierre and Georges Couthon, would eventually indict Danton for counter-revolutionary activities.[61]
Financial corruption and accusations
Toward the end of the Reign of Terror, Danton was accused of various financial misdeeds, as well as using his position within the Revolution for personal gain. Many of his contemporaries commented on Danton's financial success during the Revolution, certain acquisitions of money that he could not adequately explain.[62] Many of the specific accusations directed against him were based on insubstantial or ambiguous evidence. For the Revolutionary Tribunal legal evidence was unnecessary, moral conviction by jury was enough to speed up the proceedings.
Between 1791 and 1793, Danton faced many allegations, including taking bribes during the insurrection of August 1792, helping his secretaries to line their pockets, and forging assignats during his mission to Belgium.[63] Perhaps the most compelling evidence of financial corruption was a letter from Mirabeau to Danton in March 1791 that casually referred to 30,000 livres that Danton had received in payment.[63]
During his tenure on the Committee of Public Safety, Danton organized a peace treaty agreement with Sweden. Although the Swedish government never ratified the treaty, on 28 June 1793, the convention voted to pay 4 million livres to the Swedish Regent for diplomatic negotiations. According to Bertrand Barère, a journalist and member of the convention, Danton had taken a portion of this money which was intended for the Swedish Regent.[64] Barère's accusation was never supported by any form of evidence.[citation needed]
The most serious accusation, which haunted him during his arrest and formed a chief ground for his execution, was his alleged involvement with a scheme to appropriate the wealth of the
In December 1793, the journalist Camille Desmoulins launched a new journal, Le Vieux Cordelier, attacking François Chabot and defending Danton in the first issue. In the second, Desmoulins attacked the use of terror as a governing tactic, comparing Robespierre with Julius Caesar and, in the following issue, arguing that the Revolution should return to its original ideas which were in vogue around 10 August 1792.[68] Robespierre replied to Danton's plea for an end to the Terror on 25 December (5 Nivôse, year II). Danton continued to defend Fabre d'Eglantine even after the latter had been exposed and arrested.
By February 1794, Danton was exasperated by Robespierre's repeated references to virtue as the foundation of the revolutionary government. Danton's continual criticism of the Committee of Public Safety provoked further counter-attacks. On 26 February 1794, Saint-Just, the president of the Convention, delivered a speech in which he directed the assault against Danton.
At the end of March 1794, Danton made a triumphant speech announcing the end of the Terror.[59] Some government members were convinced that Danton was pushing for leadership in a post-Terror government. For several months, Robespierre had resisted arresting Danton.[69] According to Linton, Robespierre had to choose between friendship and virtue. His aim was to sow enough doubt in the minds of the deputies regarding Danton's political integrity to make it possible to proceed against him. Robespierre refused to see Desmoulins and rejected a private appeal.[70] Then Robespierre broke with Danton, who had angered many other members of the Committee of Public Safety with his more moderate views on the Terror, but whom Robespierre had, until this point, persisted in defending.
Arrest, trial, and execution
On 30 March, the two committees reached a decision to apprehend Danton, Desmoulins,
Danton, Desmoulins, and several others faced trial from April 3-5 before the
During the Convention, Louis Legendre, who was also one of the witnesses, proposed hearing from Danton within the assembly, but Robespierre replied, "It would be violating the laws of impartiality to grant to Danton what was refused to others, who had an equal right to make the same demand." This answer silenced at once all solicitations in his favor.[77] No friend of the Dantonists dared speak up, in case he too should be accused of putting friendship before virtue.[78] The death of Hébert had rendered Robespierre master of the Paris Commune; the death of Danton would make him master of the convention as well.[79]
During the trial,
The Convention, amidst what was described as one of its "worst fits of cowardice",[60] approved Saint-Just's proposal during the trial. This proposal allowed the tribunal to exclude any prisoner displaying disrespect for justice from further proceedings, enabling the tribunal to pronounce a sentence in the absentia of the accused.[80]
President Herman struggled to control the proceedings until the Convention enacted the aforementioned decree, limiting the accused from further self-defense.
On the last day Fouquier-Tinville asked the tribunal to order the defendants who "confused the hearing" and insulted "National Justice" to the guillotine. "I leave it all in a frightful welter", Danton said. "Not a man of them has an idea of government. Robespierre will follow me; he is dragged down by me. Ah, better to be a poor fisherman than to meddle with the government of men!".[83] Judge Souberbielle asked himself: "Which of the two, Robespierre or Danton, is the more useful to the Republic?"[84]
Fouquier-Tinville resorted to his customary approach, "asking" the jury if they felt adequately "enlightened," ultimately leading to a verdict of guilty.
Danton and his associates were buried in the Errancis Cemetery, a common place of interment for those executed during the Revolution. In the mid-19th century, their skeletal remains were transferred to the Catacombs of Paris.[87] Martial Herman resigned as president on 7 April.
On
Character disputes
Danton's influence and character during the French Revolution were, and still are, widely disputed among many historians, with the varied perspectives on him ranging from corrupt and violent to generous and patriotic.[90] Danton did not leave very much in the way of written works, personal or political; therefore most information about his actions and personality has been derived from secondhand sources.[91]
One view of Danton, presented by historians like Thiers and Mignet,[75][92] suggested he was "a gigantic revolutionary" with extravagant passions, a high level of intelligence, and an eagerness for violence in the pursuit of his goals. Another portrait of Danton emerges from the work of Lamartine, who called Danton a man "devoid of honor, principles, and morality" who found only excitement and a chance for distinction during the French Revolution. He was a mere "statesman of materialism" who was bought anew every day. Any revolutionary moments were staged for the prospect of glory and more wealth.[93]
A differing perspective on Danton is presented by Robinet, whose assessment is more positive and portrays him as a figure worthy of admiration. According to Robinet, Danton was a committed, loving, generous citizen, son, father, and husband. He remained loyal to his friends and the country of France by avoiding "personal ambition" and gave himself wholly to the cause of keeping "the government consolidated" for the Republic. He always had a love for his country and the laboring masses, who he felt deserved "dignity, consolation, and happiness".[94]
Morley (1911) wrote that Danton stands out as a master of commanding phrase. One of his fierce sayings has become a proverb. Against the Duke of Brunswick and the invaders, "il nous faut de l'audace, et encore de l'audace, et toujours de l'audace" – "We need daring, and yet more daring, and always daring!".[95] According to Georges Lefebvre he was nonchalant and lazy. He is seen as an optimist, a leader full of energy, who liked the pleasures of life, carefree and indulgent.[citation needed]
Fictionalized accounts
- Danton, Robespierre, and Marat are characters in Victor Hugo's novel Ninety-Three (Quatrevingt-treize), set during the French Revolution.
- Danton is a central character in Romanian playwright Camil Petrescu's play of the same name.
- Danton's last days were made into a play, Dantons Tod (Danton's Death), by Georg Büchner.
- On the basis of Büchner's play, Salzburger Festspiele.
- Danton appears in the Hungarian play The Tragedy of Man and the animated movie of the same name as one of Adam's incarnations throughout Lucifer's illusion.
- Danton's life from 1791 until his execution was the subject of the 1921 German film Danton.
- Danton's and Robespierre's quarrels were turned into a 1983 film, Danton, directed by Andrzej Wajda. The film itself is loosely based on Stanisława Przybyszewska's 1929 play Sprawa Dantona ("The Danton Case").
- Danton's and Robespierre's relations were also the subject of an opera by American composer John Eaton, Danton and Robespierre (1978).
- Danton is extensively featured in La Révolution française (1989),.[96]
- In his novel Locus Solus, Raymond Roussel tells a story in which Danton makes an arrangement with his executioner for his head to be smuggled into his friend's possession after his execution. The nerves and musculature of the head ultimately end up on display in the private collection of Martial Canterel, reanimated by special electrical currents and showing a deeply entrenched disposition toward oratory.
- The Revolution as experienced by Danton, Robespierre, and Desmoulins is the central focus of Hilary Mantel's novel A Place of Greater Safety (1993).
- Danton and Desmoulins are the main characters of Tanith Lee's The Gods Are Thirsty – A Novel of the French Revolution (1996).
- Danton and Robespierre are briefly referred to in the book The Scarlet Pimpernel. The two men both applaud a guard for his work in catching aristocrats.
- In The Tangled Thread, Volume 10 of The Morland Dynasty, a series of historical novels by author Cynthia Harrod-Eagles, the character Henri-Marie Fitzjames Stuart, bastard offshoot of the fictional Morland family, allies himself with Danton in an attempt to protect his family as the storm clouds of revolution gather over France.
- Danton appears briefly in Rafael Sabatini's adventure novel Scaramouche: A tale of romance in the French Revolution.
- Danton appears in a series of comics entitled "The Last Days of Georges Danton" in Step Aside, Pops: A Hark! A Vagrant Collection by Kate Beaton.[97]
- Danton is one of six point-of-view characters in Marge Piercy's novel City of Darkness, City of Light (1996).
- Danton, along with Marat and Robespierre, is a secondary character in the 1927 epic Napoléon. His portrayal in the film is somewhat cartoonish, as he is depicted as a decadent fop, albeit dedicated to republicanism and revolution, and it is he that allows Rouget de Lisle to premiere "La Marseillaise" at the Club des Cordeliers. (In reality, no such performance by Rouget de Lisle is known to have taken place.)[98]
References
- ^ a b "Georges Danton profile". Britannica.com. Archived from the original on 10 June 2008. Retrieved 20 February 2009.
- ISBN 978-0802145413.
- ^ Schama 1989, pp. 816–817.
- ISBN 978-0141927152.
- ISBN 978-0802145413.
- ISBN 978-0-87754-519-4.
- ISBN 978-0802145413.
- ISBN 978-0802145413.
- ^ Hampson, Norman (1988). Danton. New York: Basil Blackwell. pp. 19–25.[ISBN missing]
- ISBN 978-0802145413.
- ^ a b "Family tree Claude Forma – Geneanet". gw.geneanet.org. Archived from the original on 5 February 2017. Retrieved 4 February 2017.
- ISBN 978-0802145413.
- ISBN 978-0802145413.
- ISBN 978-0802145413.
- ISBN 978-0802145413.
- ^ S. Schama (1989) Citizens, p. 452
- ^ Hibbert, C. (1980) The French Revolution, p. 167
- ^ N. Hampson (1978) Danton, p. 58
- ISBN 9782956328100. Archivedfrom the original on 18 March 2023. Retrieved 13 March 2023 – via Google Books.
- ^ "Les lundis révolutionnaires: 1790". Lib. française. 24 May 1790. Archived from the original on 18 March 2023. Retrieved 13 March 2023 – via Google Books.
- ^ N. Hampson (1978) Danton, p. 57
- ^ Schama 1989, p. 567.
- ^ Andress, David. The Terror: The Merciless War for Freedom in Revolutionary France (New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 2005), p. 51.[ISBN missing]
- ^ Soboul, Albert (1989). Historical Dictionary of the French Revolution. Paris: PUF. p. 322.
- ^ N. Hampson (1978) Danton, pp. 72–73
- ^ Chisholm, Hugh (1911). Fabre d'Églantine, Philippe François Nazaire (10th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 118.
- ^ N. Hampson (1978) Danton, p. 76
- ^ Jean Massin (1959) Robespierre, pp. 133–134
- ^ S. Schama, p. 626
- ^ "Collection Complète des Lois, Décrets, Ordonnances, Réglements, et Avis du Conseil-d'État". A. Guyot. 24 May 1824. Archived from the original on 28 September 2023. Retrieved 13 March 2023 – via Google Books.
- ^ S. Loomis, p. 77
- ^ "Danton (2 septembre 1792) – Histoire – Grands discours parlementaires – Assemblée nationale". www2.assemblee-nationale.fr. Archived from the original on 12 March 2023. Retrieved 24 May 2023.
- ^ "Georges Jacques Danton". Collection at Bartleby.com. 10 October 2022. Archived from the original on 24 May 2023. Retrieved 24 May 2023.
- ^ Danton, Georges-Jacques (1759–1794) Auteur du texte (24 May 1910). Discours de Danton / édition critique par André Fribourg. Archived from the original on 5 January 2024. Retrieved 4 February 2020 – via gallica.bnf.fr.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - from the original on 22 May 2019. Retrieved 4 February 2020.
- ISBN 9783956504037. Archivedfrom the original on 28 September 2023. Retrieved 13 March 2023 – via Google Books.
- ISBN 9780802197023. Archivedfrom the original on 28 September 2023. Retrieved 13 March 2023 – via Google Books.
- ^ "Georges Danton – Committee of Public Safety, Indulgents, and Terror | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Archived from the original on 4 February 2020. Retrieved 4 February 2020.
- ^ Robespierre, Maximilien; Laponneraye, Albert; Carrel, Armand (1840). Oeuvres. Worms. p. 98. Archived from the original on 7 November 2023. Retrieved 4 February 2020.
- ^ Kappelsberger, Florian. "Letter from Robespierre to Danton (15 February 1793)".
- ^ Lami, Stanislas (1910–1911). Dictionnaire des sculpteurs de l'école française au dix-huitième siècle. Tome 1 (in French). p. 275. Archived from the original on 18 November 2020. Retrieved 14 December 2020.
- ISBN 978-1-4179-5724-8. Archivedfrom the original on 5 January 2024. Retrieved 25 February 2009.
- ^ "The Reign of Terror" (PDF). www.coreknowledge.org. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 May 2021. Retrieved 20 May 2021.
- ^ "Collection complète des lois, décrets, ordonnances, réglemens et avis du Conseil d'état: publiée sur les éditions officielles du Louvre, de l'Imprimerie nationale par Baudouin et du Bulletin des lois, de 1788 à 1824 inclusivement. [Suivie d'une table analytique et raisonnée des matières.]". A. Guyot et Scribe. 24 May 1825. Archived from the original on 8 April 2023. Retrieved 13 March 2023 – via Google Books.
- ^ Le Républicain français, 14 septembre 1793, p. 2
- ^ VIEUZAC, Bertrand BARÈRE DE (24 May 1842). "Mémoires de B. Barère ... publiés par MM. Hippolyte Carnot ... et David, d'Angers ... précédés d'une notice historique, par H. Carnot. [With a portrait.]". Archived from the original on 18 July 2023. Retrieved 13 March 2023 – via Google Books.
- ^ Soboul, A. (1975) De Franse Revolutie dl I, 1789–1793, p. 283.
- ^ The Monthly Review. Printed for R. Griffiths. 1814. p. 386. Retrieved 25 February 2009.
danton height looks.
- ^ a b R.R. Palmer (1970) The Twelve who ruled, p. 256
- ^ Histoire de la revolution Française, Volume 8, by Jules Michelet, pp. 33–34, 53
- ^ Feuille du salut public 4 octobre 1793, p.
- ^ "Georges Danton | French revolutionary leader". Encyclopedia Britannica. 23 October 2023. Archived from the original on 15 June 2015. Retrieved 1 October 2019.
- ^ "Gazette nationale ou le Moniteur universel – Year available1793 – Gallica". gallica.bnf.fr. Archived from the original on 3 August 2020. Retrieved 27 February 2020.
- ^ Soboul, A. (1975) De Franse Revolutie dl I, 1789-1793, p. 308.
- ^ Soboul, A. (1975) De Franse Revolutie dl I, 1789–1793, p. 310.
- ISBN 978-0-8446-1211-9.
- ^ French National Convention (5 September 1793). "Terror is the Order of the Day". Archived from the original on 3 February 2012. Retrieved 22 January 2012.
- ISBN 978-0-374-53073-0.
- ^ a b Schama 1989, p. 816-817.
- ^ a b Morley 1911, p. 819.
- ISBN 978-0-374-53073-0.
- ^ Hampson, Norman, The Life and Opinions of Maximilien Robespierre (London: Gerald Duckworth & Co., 1974), p. 204
- ^ a b Hampson, Norman, The Life and Opinions of Maximilien Robespierre (London: Gerald Duckworth & Co., 1974), p. 204.[ISBN missing]
- ^ Hampson, Norman, Danton (New York: Basil Blackwell Inc., 1988), 121
- ^ Scurr, Ruth, Fatal Purity: Robespierre and the French Revolution (New York, NY: Holt Paperbacks, 2006), 301.
- ^ Scurr, Ruth, Fatal Purity: Robespierre and the French Revolution (New York, NY: Holt Paperbacks, 2006), 301.
- ^ Andress, David, The Terror: The Merciless War for Freedom in Revolutionary France (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2005), 252.
- ^ Funck, F.; Danton, G.J.; Châlier, M.J. (1843). 1793: Beitrag zur geheimen Geschichte der französischen Revolution, mit besonderer Berücksichtigung Danton's und Challier's, zugleich als Berichtigung der in den Werken von Thiers und Mignet enthaltenen Schilderungen (in German). F. Bassermann. p. 52. Archived from the original on 7 November 2023. Retrieved 1 October 2019.
- ^ Linton 2013, p. 219.
- ^ Linton 2013, p. 222.
- ^ a b Manuel général de l'instruction primaire, 1 janvier 1911
- ^ a b c Le Siècle, 5 février 1898, p. 5/6
- ^ W. Doyle (1990) The Oxford History of the French Revolution, pp. 272–74.
- ^ Gaulot, Paul (4 February 1897). "Paul Gaulot (1897) Les grandes journées révolutionnaires: histoire anecdotique de la convention, p. 204". Archived from the original on 27 December 2023. Retrieved 27 December 2023.
- ^ a b Thiers, Adolphe (24 May 1845). "History of the French Revolution". Vickers. Archived from the original on 28 September 2023. Retrieved 13 March 2023 – via Google Books.
- ^ a b S. Schama (1989) Citizens, p. 820
- ^ Annual Register, Band 36. Archived 8 April 2023 at the Wayback Machine Published by Edmund Burke, p. 118
- ^ Linton 2013, p. 225-226.
- ^ Lamartine, Alphonse de (9 September 1848). "History of the Girondists: Or, Personal Memoirs of the Patriots of the French Revolution". Henry G. Bohn. Archived from the original on 5 January 2024. Retrieved 2 October 2020 – via Google Books.
- ISBN 978-0679726104.
- ^ Claretie, Jules (1876). Camille Desmoulins and his wife. London: Smith, Elder & Co. pp. 313.
Camille Desmoulins and his wife.
- ^ Gazette nationale ou le Moniteur universel, 9 avril 1794
- ^ CARLYLE: French Revolution.[1] Archived 6 January 2023 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Hampson 1974, pp. 222–223, 258.
- ^ Matrat, J. Robespierre, Angus & Robertson, 1971, p. 242
- ^ Hampson 1974, p. 219.
- ISBN 978-2-7491-1350-0
- ^ Schama 1989, pp. 842–44.
- ^ Korngold, Ralph 1941, p. 365, Robespierre and the Fourth Estate Archived 18 March 2023 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved 27 July 2014
- ^ Hampson, Norman, Danton (New York: Basil Blackwell), pp. 1–7.
- JSTOR 550513.
- ^ Legrand, Jacques. Chronicle of the French Revolution 1788–1799, London: Longman, 1989.
- ^ Furet, François. La révolution en debat, Paris: Gallimard, 1999.
- ^ Henri Béraud, Twelve Portraits of the French Revolution, (Freeport, NY: Books for Libraries Press, 1968).
- ^ Serres, Eric (10 July 2017). "" De l'audace, encore de l'audace, toujours de l'audace ! " Danton n'en manqua point". L'Humanité. Archived from the original on 17 July 2017. Retrieved 10 March 2019.
Nous demandons qu'il soit fait une instruction aux citoyens pour diriger leurs mouvements. Nous demandons qu'il soit envoyé des courriers dans tous les départements pour avertir des décrets que vous aurez rendus – le tocsin qu'on va sonner n'est point un signal d'alarme, c'est la charge sur les ennemis de la patrie. Pour les vaincre, il nous faut de l'audace, encore de l'audace, toujours de l'audace, et la France est sauvée.
- ^ "La révolution française". 25 October 1989. Archived from the original on 14 February 2018. Retrieved 29 June 2018 – via IMDb.
- ISBN 978-1-77046-208-3.
- ^ "Napoleon". 1927. Archived from the original on 22 August 2018. Retrieved 31 August 2018 – via IMDb.
Sources
- public domain: Morley, John (1911). "Danton, George Jacques". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 7 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 817–819. This article incorporates text from a publication now in the
- Hampson, Norman (1974). The Life and Opinions of Maximilien Robespierre. Duckworth. ISBN 978-0-7156-0741-1.
- Linton, Marisa (2013). Choosing Terror: Virtue, Friendship, and Authenticity in the French Revolution. Oxford University Press. OCLC 854998068.
- ISBN 978-0-394-55948-3.
Further reading
- François Furet and Mona Ozouf (eds.), A Critical Dictionary of the French Revolution. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1989; pp. 213–223.
- Laurence Gronlund, Ça Ira! or Danton in the French Revolution. Boston: Lee and Shepard, 1887.
- Norman Hampson, Danton. New York: Holmes & Meier Publishers, 1978.
- David Lawday, Danton: The Giant of the French Revolution. London: Jonathan Cape, 2009.
- Marisa Linton, Choosing Terror: Virtue, Friendship and Authenticity in the French Revolution (Oxford University Press, 2013).
- A Letter from Danton to Marie Antoinette by Carl Becker. In: The American Historical Review, Vol. 27, No. 1 (Oct. 1921), p. 29 Published by: Oxford University Press on behalf of the American Historical Association JSTOR 1836918
- Voices of Revolt Speeches of George Jacques Danton (1928) International Publishers Co., Inc.
- Hilaire Belloc, Danton: a study, Thomas Nelson & Sons, 1899.