Germaine de Staël

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Germaine de Staël
Corinne ou l'Italie (1807)
  • De l'Allemagne
  • (1813)
    Spouses
    (m. 1786; died 1802)
    (m. 1816)
    died 1818
    Parents
    representative government
  • constitutionalism
  • Signature

    Anne Louise Germaine de Staël-Holstein (French:

    French Restoration.[3]

    Her presence at critical events such as the

    Napoleon. She claimed to have discerned the tyrannical nature and ambitions of his rule ahead of many others.[5][6][non-primary source needed
    ]

    During her exile, she fostered the Coppet group, a network that spanned across Europe, positioning herself at its heart. Her literary works, emphasizing individuality and passion, left an enduring imprint on European intellectual thought. De Staël's repeated championing of Romanticism contributed significantly to its widespread recognition.[7]

    While her literary legacy has somewhat faded with time, her critical and historical contributions hold undeniable significance. Though her novels and plays may now be less remembered, the value of her analytical and historical writings remains steadfast.[8] Within her work, de Staël not only advocates for the necessity of public expression but also sounds cautionary notes about its potential hazards.[9]

    Childhood

    Carmontelle

    Germaine (or Minette) was the only child of the Swiss

    Jean d'Alembert were frequent visitors.[12] At the age of 13, she read Montesquieu, Shakespeare, Rousseau and Dante.[13]
    Her parents' social life led to a somewhat neglected and wild Germaine, unwilling to bow to her mother's demands.

    Her father "is remembered today for taking the unprecedented step in 1781 of making public the country's budget, a novelty in an absolute monarchy where the state of the national finances had always been kept secret, leading to his dismissal by the King in May of that year."[14] The family eventually took up residence in 1784 at Château Coppet, an estate on Lake Geneva. The family returned to the Paris region in 1785.[15]

    Marriage

    The Swedish Embassy, Hôtel de Ségur, later Hôtel de Salm-Dyck

    Aged 11, Germaine had suggested to her mother that she marry

    Rue du Bac; Germaine was 20, her husband 37. On the whole, the marriage seems to have been workable for both parties, although neither seems to have had much affection for the other. Madame de Staël continued to write miscellaneous works, including the three-act romantic drama Sophie (1786) and the five-act tragedy, Jeanne Grey (1787). The baron, also a gambler, obtained great benefits from the match as he received 80,000 pounds and was confirmed as lifetime ambassador to Paris.[18]

    Revolutionary activities

    Estates-General in Versailles, where she met the young Mathieu de Montmorency
    .
    "Dix Août 1792. Siege et prise du Chateau des Tuileries": French soldiers (volunteers) and citizens storming the Tuileries Palace to capture the royal family and end the monarchy.

    In 1788, de Staël published Letters on the works and character of J.J. Rousseau.[19] De Staël was at this time enthusiastic about the mixture of Rousseau's ideas about love and Montesquieu's on politics.[20]

    In December 1788 her father persuaded

    livres, half of his fortune, loaned as an investment in the public treasury in 1778.[24][25][26]

    The increasing disturbances caused by the Revolution made her privileges as the consort of an ambassador an important safeguard. Germaine held a salon in the Swedish embassy, where she gave "coalition dinners", which were frequented by moderates such as

    ]

    During this time of her political thoughts, de Staël was focused on the problem of leadership, or the perceived lack of it. In her later works she often returned to the idea that "the French Revolution has been characterized by a surprising absence of eminent personalities".[27] She experienced the death of Mirabeau, accused of royalism, as a sign of great political disorientation and uncertainty.[citation needed]

    Louis-Marie de Narbonne by Herminie Déhérain

    Following the

    Hans Axel Fersen: "Count Louis de Narbonne is finally Minister of War, since yesterday; what a glory for Mme de Staël and what a joy for her to have the whole army, all to herself."[30]
    In 1792 the
    Insurrectionary Commune were given extensive police powers from the provisional, executive council, " to detain, interrogate and incarcerate suspects without anything resembling due process of law".[33] She helped De Narbonne, dismissed for plotting, to hide under the altar in the chapel in the Swedish embassy, and lectured the sans-culottes from the section in the hall.[34][35][36][13]

    On Sunday 2 September, the day the

    Commune of Paris Jean-Lambert Tallien arrived with a new passport and accompanied her to the edge of the barricade.[38][39]

    Salons at Coppet and Paris

    Château de Coppet near Nyon

    After her flight from Paris, de Staël moved to

    Lord Loughborough, the new Lord Chancellor.[4] She was not impressed with the condition of women in English society.[4] Individual freedom was as important to her as were abstract political liberties.[41]

    Benjamin Constant by Lina Vallier
    In 1797 de Staël and Benjamin Constant lived in the remains of the Abbey of Herivaux.

    In the summer of 1793, de Staël returned to Switzerland, probably because De Narbonne had cooled towards her. She published a defence of the character of

    Gustav III. In September 1794, the recently divorced Benjamin Constant
    visited her, wanting to meet her before he committed suicide.

    In May 1795, de Staël moved to Paris, now with Constant in tow, as her protégé and lover.

    Goethe.[45]

    "Passionate love is natural to human beings and to yield oneself to love will not result in abandoning virtue".[46]

    Still absorbed by French politics, de Staël reopened her salon.

    Saint-Ouen, on her father's estate and became a close friend of the beautiful and wealthy Juliette Récamier to whom she sold her parents' house in the Rue de la Chaussée-d'Antin
    .

    De Staël completed the initial part of her first most substantial contribution to political and constitutional theory, "Of present circumstances that can end the Revolution, and of the principles that must found the republic of France".[14]

    Conflict with Napoleon

    Napoleon Bonaparte in 1803 by François Gérard

    On 6 December 1797 de Staël had the first meeting with Napoleon Bonaparte in Talleyrand's office and met him again on 3 January 1798 during a ball. She made it clear to him that she did not agree with his planned invasion of Switzerland. He ignored her opinions and would not read her letters.[55] In January 1800, Napoleon appointed Benjamin Constant a member of the

    J.J. Rousseau and their followers were the cause of the French Revolution.[56] This view was cemented when Jacques Necker published his "Last Views on Politics and Finance" and his daughter, her "De la littérature considérée dans ses rapports avec les institutions sociales". It was her first philosophical treatment of the Europe question: it dealt with such factors as nationality, history, and social institutions.[57] Napoleon started a campaign against her latest publication. He did not like her cultural determinism and generalizations, in which she stated that "an artist must be of his own time".[46][58] In his opinion a woman should stick to knitting.[59] He said about her, according to the Memoirs of Madame de Rémusat, that she "teaches people to think who had never thought before, or who had forgotten how to think".[60] It became clear that the first man of France and de Staël were not likely ever to get along together.[61]

    "It seems to me that life's circumstances, being

    ephemeral, teach us less about durable truths than the fictions based on those truths; and that the best lessons of delicacy and self-respect are to be found in novels where the feelings are so naturally portrayed that you fancy you are witnessing real life as you read."[62]

    De Staël published a provocative, anti-Catholic novel

    When Constant moved to

    Madame de Genlis, suspected a conspiracy. "Her extensive network of connections – which included foreign diplomats and known political opponents, as well as members of the government and of Bonaparte's own family – was in itself a source of suspicion and alarm for the government."[64] Her protection of Jean Gabriel Peltier – who plotted the death of Napoleon – influenced his decision on 13 October 1803 to exile her without trial.[65]

    Years of exile

    For ten years, de Staël was not allowed to come within 40 leagues (almost 200 km) of Paris. She accused Napoleon of "persecuting a woman and her children".[66] On 23 October, she left for Germany "out of pride", in the hope of gaining support and to be able to return home as soon as possible.[67][68]

    German travels

    Karl August, Grand Duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach in 1805 by Georg Melchior Kraus
    Madame de Staël as her character Corinne (posthumously) by François Gérard
    Château de Chaumont

    With her children and Constant, de Staël stopped off in Metz and met Kant's French translator Charles de Villers. In mid-December, they arrived in Weimar, where she stayed for two and a half months at the court of the Grand Duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach and his mother Anna Amalia. Goethe who had become ill hesitated about seeing her. After meeting her, Goethe went on to refer to her as an "extraordinary woman" in his private correspondence.[69] Schiller complimented her intelligence and eloquence, but her frequent visits distracted him from completing William Tell.[70][71] De Staël was constantly on the move, talking and asking questions.[72][46] Constant decided to abandon her in Leipzig and return to Switzerland. De Staël travelled on to Berlin, where she made the acquaintance of August Schlegel who was lecturing there on literature. She appointed him on an enormous salary to tutor her children. On 18 April they all left Berlin when the news of her father's death reached her.

    Mistress of Coppet

    On 19 May, de Staël arrived in Coppet now its wealthy and independent mistress. She spent the summer at the chateau sorting through his writings and published an essay on his private life. In April 1804,

    Sismondi. There she met the poet Monti and the painter, Angelica Kauffman. "Her visit to Italy helped her to develop her theory of the difference between northern and southern societies..."[4]

    De Staël returned to Coppet in June 1805, moved to

    Chateaubriand all belonged to the "Coppet group".[78][79]
    Each day the table was laid for about thirty guests. Talking seemed to be everybody's chief activity.

    For a time de Staël lived with Constant in

    Friedrich Schlegel, whose wife Dorothea had translated Corinne into German.[80] The use of the word Romanticism was invented by Schlegel but spread more widely across France through its persistent use by de Staël.[81] Late in 1807 she set out for Vienna and visited Maurice O'Donnell.[82] She was accompanied by her children and August Schlegel who gave his famous lectures there. In 1808 Benjamin Constant was afraid to admit to her that he had married Charlotte von Hardenberg in the meantime. "If men had the qualities of women", de Staël wrote, "love would simply cease to be a problem."[83] De Staël set to work on her book about Germany – in which she presented the idea of a state called "Germany" as a model of ethics and aesthetics and praised German literature and philosophy.[84] The exchange of ideas and literary and philosophical conversations with Goethe, Schiller, and Wieland had inspired de Staël to write one of the most influential books of the nineteenth century on Germany.[85]

    Return to France

    Pretending she wanted to emigrate to the United States, de Staël was given permission to re-enter France. She moved first into the

    Albert de Rocca, twenty-three years her junior, to whom she got privately engaged in 1811 but did not marry publicly until 1816.[46]

    East European travels

    Madame de Staël in 1812 by Vladimir Borovikovsky

    The operations of the French imperial police in the case of de Staël are rather obscure. She was at first left undisturbed, but by degrees, the chateau itself became a source of suspicion, and her visitors found themselves heavily persecuted.

    Metternich. There, after some trepidation and trouble, she received the necessary passports to go on to Russia.[87]

    During

    Machiavelli which Napoleon had thought proper to give him."[89]

    "You see," said he, "I am careful to keep my ministers and generals at variance among themselves, in order that each may reveal to me the faults of the other; I keep up a continual jealousy by the manner I treat those who care about me: one day one thinks himself the favourite, the next day another, so that no one is ever certain of my favour."[90]

    For de Staël, that was a vulgar and vicious theory. General

    Kutuzov sent her letters from the Battle of Tarutino; before the end of that year he succeeded, aided by the extreme weather, in chasing the Grande Armée out of Russia.[91]

    August Wilhelm von Schlegel by Adolf Hohneck

    After four months of travel, de Staël arrived in Sweden. In Stockholm, she began writing her "Ten Years' Exile", detailing her travels and encounters. She did not finish the manuscript and after eight months, she set out for England, without August Schlegel, who meanwhile had been appointed secretary to the Crown Prince Carl Johan, formerly French Marshal

    Louis XVIII had been crowned (Bourbon Restoration
    ) she returned to Paris. She wrote her Considérations sur la révolution française, based on Part One of "Ten Years' Exile". Again her salon became a major attraction both for Parisians and foreigners.

    Restoration and death

    Lord Byron by Thomas Phillips

    When news came of Napoleon's landing on the Côte d'Azur, between

    Victor, 3rd duc de Broglie in Livorno
    .

    The whole family returned to Coppet in June. Lord Byron, at that time in debt, left London in great trouble and frequently visited de Staël during July and August. For Byron, she was Europe's greatest living writer, but "with her pen behind her ears and her mouth full of ink". "Byron was particularly critical of de Staël's self-dramatizing tendencies".[98][99] Byron was a supporter of Napoleon, but for de Staël Bonaparte "was not only a talented man but also one who represented a whole pernicious system of power", a system that "ought to be examined as a great political problem relevant to many generations."[100] "Napoleon imposed standards of homogeneity on Europe that is, French taste in literature, art and the legal systems, all of which de Staël saw as inimical to her cosmopolitan point of view."[99] Byron wrote she was "sometimes right and often wrong about Italy and England – but almost always true in delineating the heart, which is of but one nation of no country, or rather, of all."[101]

    Despite her increasingly ill health, de Staël returned to Paris for the winter of 1816–17, living at 40, rue des Mathurins. Constant argued with de Staël, who had asked him to pay off his debts to her. A warm friendship sprang up between de Staël and the Duke of Wellington, whom she had first met in 1814, and she used her influence with him to have the size of the Army of Occupation greatly reduced.[102]

    De Staël became confined to her house, paralyzed since 21 February 1817 following a stroke. She died on 14 July 1817. Her deathbed conversion to Roman Catholicism, after reading Thomas à Kempis, was reported[citation needed] but is subject to some debate. Wellington remarked that, while he knew that she was greatly afraid of death, he had thought her incapable of believing in the afterlife.[102] Wellington makes no mention of de Staël reading Thomas à Kempis in the quote found in Elizabeth Longford's biography of the Iron Duke. Furthermore, he reports hearsay, which may explain why two modern biographies of de Staël – Herold and Fairweather – discount the conversion entirely. Herold states that "her last deed in life was to reaffirm in her 'Considerations, her faith in Enlightenment, freedom, and progress'."[103] Rocca survived her by little more than six months.

    Offspring

    Madame de Staël and her daughter Albertine by Marguerite Gérard

    Besides two daughters, Gustava Sofia Magdalena (born July 1787) and Gustava Hedvig (born August 1789), both died in infancy, de Staël had two sons, Ludwig August (1790–1827), Albert (1792–1813), and a daughter,

    Albertine, baroness Staël von Holstein (1797–1838). It is believed Louis, Comte de Narbonne-Lara was the father of Ludvig August and Albert, and Benjamin Constant the father of red-haired Albertine.[104] With Albert de Rocca, de Staël then aged 46, had one son, the disabled Louis-Alphonse de Rocca (1812–1842), who married Marie-Louise-Antoinette de Rambuteau, daughter of Claude-Philibert Barthelot de Rambuteau,[46] and granddaughter of De Narbonne.[105] Even as she gave birth, there were fifteen people in her bedroom.[106]

    After the death of de Staël's husband, Mathieu de Montmorency became the legal guardian of her children. Like August Schlegel he was one of her intimates until the end of her life.

    Legacy

    Albertine Necker de Saussure, married to de Staël's cousin, wrote her biography in 1821, published as part of the collected works. Auguste Comte included Mme de Staël in his 1849 Calendar of Great Men. Her political legacy has been generally identified with a stout defence of "liberal" values: equality, individual freedom, and the limitation of state power by constitutional rules.[107] "Yet although she insisted to the Duke of Wellington that she needed politics in order to live, her attitude towards the propriety of female political engagement varied: at times she declared that women should simply be the guardians of domestic space for the opposite sex, while at others, that denying women access to the public sphere of activism and engagement was an abuse of human rights. This paradox partly explains the persona of the “homme-femme” she presented in society, and it remained unresolved throughout her life."[108]

    Comte's disciple Frederic Harrison wrote about de Staël that her novels "precede the works of Walter Scott, Byron, Mary Shelley, and partly those of Chateaubriand, their historical importance is great in the development of modern Romanticism, of the romance of the heart, the delight in nature, and in the arts, antiquities, and history of Europe."

    Precursor of feminism

    Recent studies by historians, including feminists, have been assessing the specifically feminine dimension in de Staël's contributions both as an activist-theorist and as a writer about the tumultuous events of her time.[109][110] She has been called a precursor of feminism.[111][112][113]

    In popular culture

    • Republican activist Victor Gold quoted Madame de Staël when characterizing American Vice President Dick Cheney, "Men do not change, they unmask themselves."
    • De Staël is credited in Tolstoy's epilogue to War and Peace as a factor of the 'influential forces' which historians say led to the movement of humanity in that era.[114]
    • The popular wrestling compilation series Botchamania has referenced her on several occasions saying One must choose in life, between boredom and suffering which is normally followed by a humorous joke.
    • On the popular HBO television show, The Sopranos, character Meadow Soprano quotes Madame de Staël in Season 2, Episode 7, D-Girl, when she says, "Madame de Staël said, 'In life one must choose between boredom or suffering.'"
    • Mme de Staël is used several times to characterize Mme de Grandet in Stendhal's Lucien Leuwen.
    • Mme de Staël is mentioned several times, always approvingly, by Russia's national poet, Alexander Pushkin. He described her in 1825 as a woman whose persecution distinguished her and who commanded respect from all of Europe, and gave her a positive portrayal in his unfinished 1836 novel Roslavlev.[115] Her high stature in Russia is attested by Pushkin's warning to a critic: "Mme de Staël is ours, do not touch her!"[116]
    • Pushkin's friend Pyotr Vyazemsky was also an admirer of her life and works.[117]
    • Mme de Staël is frequently quoted by Ralph Waldo Emerson and she is credited with introducing him to recent German thought.[118]
    • Herman Melville considered de Staël among the greatest women of the century and Margaret Fuller consciously adopted de Staël as her role model.[119]
    • Danish radical Georg Brandes gave pride of place to de Staël in his survey of Emigrantlitteraturen and highly esteemed her novels, particularly Corinne, which was also admired by Henrik Ibsen and used as a guidebook for his travels through Italy.[120]
    • Talleyrand observed with his customary cynicism that Germaine enjoyed throwing people overboard simply to have the pleasure of fishing them out of the water again.[121]
    • Sismondi
      accused De Staël of a lack of tact, when they were travelling through Italy and wrote Mme De Staël was easily bored if she had to pay attention to things.
    • For Heinrich Heine she was the "grandmother of doctrines".[122]
    • For Byron she was "a good woman at heart and the cleverest at bottom, but spoilt by a wish to be – she knew not what. In her own house she was amiable; in any other person's, you wished her gone, and in her own again".[123]

    Works

    Delphine, 1803 edition.
    De l'Allemagne, 1813 edition.
    • Journal de Jeunesse, 1785
    • Sophie ou les sentiments secrets, 1786 (published anonymously in 1790)
    • Jane Gray, 1787 (published in 1790)
    • Lettres sur le caractère et les écrits de J.-J. Rousseau, 1788[124]
    • Éloge de M. de Guibert
    • À quels signes peut-on reconnaître quelle est l'opinion de la majorité de la nation?
    • Réflexions sur le procès de la Reine, 1793
    • Zulma : fragment d'un ouvrage, 1794
    • Réflexions sur la paix adressées à M. Pitt et aux Français, 1795
    • Réflexions sur la paix intérieure
    • Recueil de morceaux détachés (comprenant : Épître au malheur ou Adèle et Édouard, Essai sur les fictions et trois nouvelles : Mirza ou lettre d'un voyageur, Adélaïde et Théodore et Histoire de Pauline), 1795
    • Essai sur les fictions, translated by Goethe into German
    • De l'influence des passions sur le bonheur des individus et des nations, 1796[125]
    • Des circonstances actuelles qui peuvent terminer la Révolution et des principes qui doivent fonder la République en France
    • De la littérature dans ses rapports avec les institutions sociales, 1799
    • Delphine, 1802 deals with the question of woman's status in a society hidebound by convention and faced with a Revolutionary new order
    • Vie privée de Mr. Necker, 1804
    • Épîtres sur Naples
    • Corinne ou l'Italie
      , 1807 is as much a travelogue as a fictional narrative. It discusses the problems of female artistic creativity in two radically different cultures, England and Italy.
    • Agar dans le désert
    • Geneviève de Brabant
    • La Sunamite
    • Le capitaine Kernadec ou sept années en un jour (comédie en deux actes et en prose)
    • La signora Fantastici
    • Le mannequin (comédie)
    • Sapho
    • De l'Allemagne, 1813, translated as Germany 1813.[126]
    • Réflexions sur le suicide, 1813
    • Morgan et trois nouvelles, 1813
    • De l'esprit des traductions
    • Considérations sur les principaux événements de la révolution française, depuis son origine jusques et compris le 8 juillet 1815, 1818 (posthumously)[127]
    • Dix Années d'Exil (1818), posthumously published in France by Mdm Necker de Saussure. In 1821 translated and published as Ten Years' Exile. Memoirs of That Interesting Period of the Life of the Baroness De Stael-Holstein, Written by Herself, during the Years 1810, 1811, 1812, and 1813, and Now First Published from the Original Manuscript, by Her Son.[128]
    • Essais dramatiques, 1821
    • Oeuvres complètes 17 t., 1820–21
    • Oeuvres complètes de Madame la Baronne de Staël-Holstein [Complete works of Madame Baron de Staël-Holstein]. Paris: Firmin Didot frères. 1836. Volume 1  · Volume 2

    Correspondence in French

    See also

    References

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    2. .
    3. ^ Staël, Germaine de, in the Historical Dictionary of Switzerland.
    4. ^ a b c d e Bordoni, Silvia (2005) Lord Byron and Germaine de Staël, The University of Nottingham
    5. ^ Madame de Staël (Anne-Louise-Germaine) (1818). Considerations on the Principal Events of the French Revolution: Posthumous Work of the Baroness de Stael. James Eastburn and Company at the literary rooms, Broadway. Clayton & Kingsland, Printers. p. 46.
    6. ^ "Madame de Staël".
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    8. ^ "Germaine de Staël - Exile, Novels, Enlightenment | Britannica".
    9. ^ Eveline Groot – Public Opinion and Political Passions in the Work of Germaine de Stäel, p. 190
    10. ^ Saintsbury 1911, p. 750.
    11. .
    12. ^ Gabriel Paul Othenin de Cléron, (Comte d'Haussonville) (1882) The Salon of Madame Necker. Trans. Henry M. Trollope. London: Chapman and Hall.
    13. ^ a b c "Vaud: Le château de Mezery a Jouxtens-Mezery".
    14. ^ a b "Stael and the French Revolution | Online Library of Liberty". oll.libertyfund.org. Retrieved 20 November 2023.
    15. ^ Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Germaine de Staël" . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
    16. ^ Niebuhr, Barthold Georg; Michaelis, Johann David (1836). The Life of Carsten Niebuhr, the Oriental Traveller. T. Clark. p. 6.
    17. ^ Schama, p. 257
    18. ^ Napoleon's nemesis
    19. ^ Grimm, Friedrich Melchior; Diderot, Denis (1815). Historical & literary memoirs and anecdotes. Printed for H. Colburn. p. 353.
    20. ^ "Germaine de Staël | Books, Biography, & Facts | Britannica".
    21. ^ Schama, pp. 345–346.
    22. ^ Schama, p. 382
    23. ^ Schama, pp. 499, 536
    24. ^ Craiutu, Aurelian A Voice of Moderation in the Age of Revolutions: Jacques Necker's Reflections on Executive Power in Modern Society. p. 4
    25. ^ The Works of John Moore, M.D.: With Memoirs of His Life and Writings, Band 4 by John Moore (1820)
    26. ^ d’Haussonville, Othénin (2004) “La liquidation du ‘dépôt’ de Necker: entre concept et idée-force”, pp. 156–158 Cahiers staëliens, 55
    27. ^ Fontana, p. 29
    28. ^ Fontana, p. 33
    29. ^ Fontana, pp. 37, 41, 44
    30. ^ Correspondance (1770–1793). Published by Évelyne Lever. Paris 2005, pp. 660, 724
    31. ^ Fontana, p. 49
    32. ^ "Mémoires de Malouet", p. 221
    33. ^ Schama, pp. 624, 631
    34. ^ Fontana, p. 61
    35. ^ Moore, p. 138
    36. ^ Herold, p. 272
    37. ^ Madame de Staël (Anne-Louise-Germaine) (1818). Considerations on the Principal Events of the French Revolution. Baldwin, Cradock, and Joy. p. 75.
    38. .
    39. ^ It was Tallien who announced the September Massacres and sent off the famous circular of 3 September to the French provinces, recommending them to take similar action.
    40. ^ .
    41. ^ Moore, p. 15
    42. ^ Fontana, p. 113
    43. ^ The Thermidorians had opened the way back to Paris.
    44. ^ Fontana, p. 125
    45. ^ Müller, p. 29.
    46. ^ a b c d e f Anne-Louise-Germaine Necker, Baroness de Staël-Holstein (1766–1817) by Petri Liukkonen
    47. ^ Moore, p. 332
    48. ^ Fontana, p. 178; Moore, p. 335
    49. ^ Moore, pp. 345, 349
    50. ^ Custine, Delphine de Custine, 66, note 1.
    51. ^ Fontana, p.159
    52. ^ Les clubs contre-révolutionnaires, cercles, comités, sociétés ..., Band 1 von Augustin Challamel, S. 507-511
    53. ^ Fontana, p. 159
    54. ^ Moore, p. 348
    55. ^ Moore, pp. 350–352
    56. ^ Madame de Staël (Anne-Louise-Germaine) (1818). Considerations on the Principal Events of the French Revolution: Posthumous Work of the Baroness de Stael. James Eastburn and Company at the literary rooms, Broadway. Clayton & Kingsland, Printers. pp. 90, 95–96.
    57. ^ Madame de Staël (1818). Considerations on the Principal Events of the French Revolution: Posthumous Work of the Baroness de Stael. James Eastburn and Company at the literary rooms, Broadway. Clayton & Kingsland, Printers. p. 42.
    58. ^ Goodden, p. 18
    59. ^ Moore, p. 379
    60. ^ Memoirs of Madame de Remusat, trans. Cashel Hoey and John Lillie, p. 407. Books.Google.com
    61. ^ Saintsbury 1911, p. 751.
    62. ^ Delphine (1802), Préface
    63. ^ From the Introduction to Madame de Staël (1987) Delphine. Edition critique par S. Balayé & L. Omacini. Librairie Droz S.A. Genève
    64. ^ Fontana, p. 204
    65. ^ "Un journaliste contre-révolutionnaire, Jean-Gabriel Peltier (1760–1825) – Etudes Révolutionnaires". Etudes-revolutionnaires.org. 7 October 2011. Archived from the original on 3 December 2013. Retrieved 17 September 2013.
    66. ^ Fontana, p. 263, note 47
    67. ^ Fontana, p. 205
    68. ^ Müller, p. 292
    69. ^ Sainte-Beuve, Charles Augustin (1891). Portraits of Women. A. C. M'Clurg. p. 107.
    70. ^ Jonas, Fritz, ed. (1892). Schillers Briefe. Kritische Gesamtausgabe. Vol VII. Stuttgart: Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt. p. 109.
    71. ^ Graf, Hans Gerhard; Leitzmann, Albert, eds. (1955). Der Briefwechsel zwischen Schiller und Goethe. Leipzig. pp. 474–485.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
    72. ^ Madame de Staël von Klaus-Werner Haupt
    73. ^ Herold, p. 304
    74. ^ Panizza, Letizia; Wood, Sharon. A History of Women's Writing in Italy. p. 144.
    75. ^ The novel prompted, none too inspiringly, The Corinna of England, and a Heroine in the Shade (1809) by E. M. Foster, in which retribution is wreaked on a shallowly portrayed version of the French author's heroine.
    76. ^ Goodden, p. 61
    77. ^ Fontana, p. 230
    78. ^ Herold, p. 290
    79. ^ Stevens, A. (1881). Madame de Stael: A Study of her Life and Times, the First Revolution and the First Empire. London: John Murray. pp. 15–23.
    80. ^ Schlegel and Madame de Staël have endeavoured to reduce poetry to two systems, classical and romantic.
    81. .
    82. ^ Madame de Staël et Maurice O’Donnell (1805–1817), d’apres des letters inédites, by Jean Mistler, published by Calmann-Levy, Editeurs, 3 rue Auber, Paris, 1926.
    83. ^ Goodden, p. 73
    84. ^ Müller
    85. ^ a b Fontana, p. 206
    86. ^ Staël (Anne-Louise-Germaine, Madame de); Auguste Louis Staël-Holstein (baron de) (1821). Ten years' exile: or, Memoirs of that interesting period of the life of the Baroness de Stael-Holstein. Printed for Treuttel and Würtz. pp. 101–110.
    87. ^ Ten Years' After, p. 219, 224, 264, 268, 271
    88. ^ Ten Years' Exile, pp. 350–352
    89. ^ Ten Years' Exile, p. 421
    90. ^ Ten Years' Exile, p. 380
    91. .
    92. ^ Nicholson, pp. 184–185
    93. ^ Autograph letter in French, signed 'N. de Staël H' to William Wilberforce
    94. ^ Lord Byron and Germaine de Staël by Silvia Bordoni, p. 4
    95. ^ Fontana, p. 227.
    96. ^ Fontana, p. 208.
    97. ^ BLJ, 8 January 1814; 4:19.
    98. ^ .
    99. .
    100. ^ Nicholson, pp. 223–224
    101. ^ a b Longford, Elizabeth (1972). Wellington: Pillar of State. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. p. 38.
    102. ^ Herold, p. 392
    103. ^ Goodden, p. 31
    104. ^ Moore, p. 390
    105. ^ Moore, p. 8
    106. ^ Fontana, p. 234.
    107. .
    108. .
    109. ^ Moore, L. (2007). Liberty: The Lives and Times of Six Women in Revolutionary France.
    110. ^ Popowicz, Kamil (2013). Madame de Staël (in Polish). Vol. 4. Warsaw: Collegium Civitas.
    111. .
    112. ^ Powell, Sara (1994). "Women Writers in Revolution: Feminism in Germaine de Staël and Ding Ling". Masters Theses & Specialist Projects. Retrieved 15 February 2020.
    113. ^ Abramowitz, Michael (2 April 2007). "Rightist Indignation". Washington Post. Retrieved 30 June 2007.
    114. .
    115. .
    116. ^ Rossettini, Olga (1963). "Madame de Staël et la Russie". Rivista de Letterature Moderne e Comparate. 16 (1): 50–67.
    117. ^ "Emerson – Roots – Madame DeStael". transcendentalism-legacy.tamu.edu. Archived from the original on 11 August 2014. Retrieved 6 November 2013.
    118. ^ Porte, Joel (1991). In Respect to Egotism: Studies in American Romantic Writing. Cambridge University Press. p. 23.
    119. .
    120. ^ Moore, p. 350
    121. ^ Sämtliche Schriften (Anm. 2), Bd. 3, S. 882 f.
    122. ^ Nicholson, p. 222
    123. ^ Lettres sur la Caractère et les Écrits de Jean-Jacques Rousseau
    124. ^ A Treatise on the influence of Passions on the Happiness of individuals and of nations
    125. ^ Madame de Staël (Anne-Louise-Germaine) (1813). Germany. John Murray. pp. 1–.
    126. ^ Considérations sur les principaux événements de la révolution française
    127. ^ Ten Years' Exile by Madame de Staël

    Sources

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