Ghurid dynasty
Ghurid dynasty | |||||||||||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
786–1215 | |||||||||||||||||||||||
Capital | Firozkoh[9] Herat[10] Ghazni (1170s–1215)[11] | ||||||||||||||||||||||
Common languages | Persian (court, literature)[12][13] | ||||||||||||||||||||||
Religion | Before 1011: Paganism[14] From 1011: Sunni Islam[15] | ||||||||||||||||||||||
Government | Hereditary monarchy Diarchy (1173-1203) | ||||||||||||||||||||||
Malik/Sultan | |||||||||||||||||||||||
• 8th-century | Amir Banji (first) | ||||||||||||||||||||||
• 1214–1215 | Zia al-Din Ali (last) | ||||||||||||||||||||||
History | |||||||||||||||||||||||
• Established | 786 | ||||||||||||||||||||||
• Disestablished | 1215 | ||||||||||||||||||||||
Area | |||||||||||||||||||||||
1200 est.[16] | 2,000,000 km2 (770,000 sq mi) | ||||||||||||||||||||||
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The Ghurid dynasty (also spelled Ghorids;
The Ghurids initially ruled as vassals of the
During the
Ghiyath al-Din Muhammad died in 1203 of illness caused due to
Origins
In the 19th century some European scholars, such as
Historian André Wink explains in The New Cambridge History of Islam:[28]
The Shansabānī dynasty superseded the Ghaznavids in the second half of the twelfth century. This dynasty was not of Turkish, nor even Afghan, but of eastern Persian or Tājīk origin, speaking a distinct Persian dialect of its own, like the rest of the inhabitants of the remote and isolated mountain region of Ghūr and its capital of Fīrūzkūh (in what is now central Afghanistan).
When the Ghurids started to distinguish themselves through their conquests, courtiers and genealogists (such as
Additionally, nothing is known of the pre-Islamic religious beliefs of the Ghurids.[13]
Language
The Ghurids' native language was apparently different from their court language, Persian.
There is nothing to confirm the recent conclusion that the inhabitants of Ghor were originally
History
Early history
A certain Ghurid prince named Amir Banji was the ruler of
In 1152, Ala al-Din Husayn refused to pay tribute to the
During the reign of Ala ad-Din, the Ghurids firmly established themselves at
The Ghurids at their zenith
Sayf al-Din Muhammad was succeeded by his cousin
In 1173, Muhammad of Ghor after multiple attempts reconquered the city of Ghazni from the
Conquest of Khorasan (1192)
Afterwards, Muhammad assisted his brother Ghiyath in his contest with the
After the death of his brother Ghiyath on 13 March 1203,[45] Muhammad became the successor of his empire and ruled until his assassination in 1206 near Jhelum by Ismāʿīlīs whom he persecuted during his lifetime.[46][47]
Conquest of India (1175 to 1205)
On the eve of the Ghurid invasion of the subcontinent, northern India was ruled by many independent
Northern India and Bengal were conquered by
In 1178, he turned south and again marched through the
In 1191, the Ghurids seized
In 1194, Muhammad returned to India and crossed the
In 1202-1203 CE, Qutbu l-Din Aibak, now Ghurid governor of
Around 1203,
Muhammad placed his faithful Turkic generals, rather than his own Ghurid brethens, in position of authority over local tributary kings, throughout the conquered Indian lands.
Decline and fall
Ghiyath died on 13 March 1203 due to gout[84] and was succeeded by Muhammad of Ghor as the sole ruler of the vast Ghurid Empire. Soon after, Alauddin Khwarazm Shah besieged and captured some of the strongholds of the Ghurids around Merv, although Muhammad drove him back and further besieged their capital Gurgānj.[85]
Alauddin then appealed to his nominal suzerain the
After the death of Muhammad Ghori in 1206, a confused struggle then ensued among the remaining Ghūrid leaders and the
Though the Ghūrids' empire was short-lived, Mu'izz al-Din Muhammad's conquests strengthened the foundations of Muslim rule in India.Religion
The Ghurids positioned themselves as defenders of
Culture
The Ghurids were great patrons of
Out of the Ghurid state grew the Delhi Sultanate which established the Persian language as the official court language of the region – a status it retained until the late Mughal era in the 19th century.
There was a strong Turkic presence among the Ghurids, since Turk slave-soldiers formed the vanguard of the Ghurid armies.[96] There was intense amalgamation between these various ethnic groups: "a notable admixture of Tajik, Persian, Turkish and indigenous Afghan ethnicities therefore characterized the Shansabanis".[96] At least until the end of the 13th century when they ruled the Mamluk Sultanate in India, the Turks in the Ghurid realm maintained their ethnical characteristics, continuing to use Turkish as their main language, rather than Persian, and persisting in their rude and bellicose ways as "men of the sword", in opposition to the Persian "men of the pen".[97]
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The twoChisht(the western was built in 1167)
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The eastern mausoleum of Chisht (built in 1194)
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Ruins of the Shah-i Mashhad madrasa (built in 1176)
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Ghurid arch inQala-e-Bost
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Great Mosque of Herat: Ghurid entrance (iwan) with remains of Ghurid inscriptions. 1200-1201 CE.[98]
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Friday Mosque keyhole arch (Ghaznavid style)
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Ghiyath al-Din mausoleum, interior of portal
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Ghiyath al-Din mausoleum, kufic inscriptions
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Ghiyath al-Din mausoleum, naskhi inscription
Metalwork of the Ghurid period
An important metalwork school was located in
A series of remarkable ewers is attributed to this Herat school of metalwork at the time of Ghurid rule, during the 1180-1200 period. One of them, now in the Georgian National Museum, is marked with a poem in Persian which specifically records its manufacture in Herat in 1181-1182, and permits the attribution and dating of this group of ewers to 1180-1200 in Herat, at the time of Ghurid rule.[101][102][99]
My ewer is the most beautiful ewer of all time. Who in this world has anything like this today? Everyone who has seen it has said it is very beautiful. No one has seen its equal, for it is unparalleled
Look at the ewer from which spirit is born. It is the water of life that flows from it. Any stream that comes from it into the hand. Creates a new pleasure every moment
Look at the ewer that is praised by everyone. It would be worthy of service to an honored person like you Every eye that sees it opens wide. And says that nothing could be better than this
This water vessel is made in Herat. Who else could product anything like it (in the world)? Although the seven stars the Planets of the celestial sphere lift their heads high, May they look favorably upon him who produces such a ewer
Mercy be on him who makes such a ewer. May he be given silver and gold for making it. May good fortune come to him and caress him in friendship. May affliction be removed and given to his enemies
— Ewer in the name of Mahmud b. Muhammad al-Harawi Khurasan, Herat, dated A.H. Sha'ban 577 (December 10, 1181-January 7, 1182). Brass; raised, repousse, engraved, inlaid with copper and silver. Georgian National Museum, Janashia Museum of Georgia, Tbilisi (19-2008;32).[103][99]
-
A ewer similar to the Georgian National Museum ewer. Metropolitan Museum of Art
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Top view
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An example from the Museum of Islamic Art, Doha
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Enthroned figure detail
The practice of inlaying "required relatively few tools" and the technique spread westward, perhaps by Khurasani artisans moving to other cities.[100] By the turn of the 13th century, the silver-inlaid-brass technique had reached Mosul under the Turkic Zengid dynasty (area of modern Iraq).[100]
List of rulers
Coinage | Titular Name(s) | Personal Name | Reign |
---|---|---|---|
Amir امیر |
Amir Banji امیر سوری |
8th-century | |
Malik ملک |
Amir Suri امیر سوری |
9th-century – 10th-century | |
Malik ملک |
Muhammad ibn Suri محمد بن سوری |
10th-century – 1011 | |
As vassals of the Ghaznavid Empire
| |||
Malik ملک |
Abu Ali ibn Muhammad ابوعلی بن محمد |
1011–1035 | |
Malik ملک |
Abbas ibn Shith عباس بن شیث |
1035 – 1060 | |
Malik ملک |
Muhammad ibn Abbas محمد بن عباس |
1060 – 1080 | |
Malik ملک |
Qutb al-din Hasan قطب الدین حسن |
1080 – 1100 | |
As vassals of the Seljuk Empire | |||
Abul-Muluk ابولملک |
Izz al-Din Husayn عز الدین حسین |
1100–1146 | |
Malik ملک |
Sayf al-Din Suri سیف الدین سوری |
1146–1149 | |
Malik ملک |
Baha al-Din Sam I بهاء الدین سام |
1149 | |
Malik ملک Sultan al-Muazzam سلطان المعظم |
Ala al-Din Husayn علاء الدین حسین |
1149–1161 | |
As independent rulers | |||
Malik ملک |
Sayf al-Din Muhammad سیف الدین محمد |
1161–1163 | |
Sultan Abul-Fateh سلطان ابوالفتح |
Ghiyath al-Din Muhammad غیاث الدین محمد |
1163–1203 | |
Sultan Shahāb-ud-din Muhammad Ghori سلطان شهاب الدین محمد غوری |
Mu'izz al-Din Muhammad معز الدین محمد |
1203–1206 | |
As vassals of the Khwarazmian Empire | |||
Sultan سلطان |
Ghiyath al-Din Mahmud غیاث الدین محمود |
1206–1212 | |
Sultan سلطان |
Baha al-Din Sam III بهاء الدین سام |
1212–1213 | |
Sultan سلطان |
Ala al-Din Atsiz علاء الدین دراست |
1213–1214 | |
Sultan سلطان |
Ala al-Din Ali علاء الدین علی |
1214–1215 | |
Khwarazmian conquest
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Bamiyan Branch
Coinage | Titular Name(s) | Personal Name | Reign |
---|---|---|---|
As independent rulers | |||
Malik ملک |
Fakhr al-Din Masud فخرالدین مسعود |
1152–1163 | |
Malik ملک |
Shams al-Din Muhammad ibn Masud شمس الدین محمد بن مسعود |
1163–1192 | |
Malik ملک |
Abbas ibn Muhammad عباس بن محمد |
1192 | |
Malik ملک Abul-Mu'ayyid ابوالمؤید |
Baha al-Din Sam II بهاء الدین سام |
1192–1206 | |
As vassal of the Khwarazmian Empire | |||
Malik ملک |
Jalal al-Din Ali جلال الدین علی |
1206–1215 | |
Khwarazmian conquest
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- Green shaded row signifies Ghurid vassalage under the Khwarazmian dynasty.
Ghurid family tree
Ghurid dynasty family tree | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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See also
Notes
References
- ^ Schwartzberg, Joseph E. (1978). A Historical Atlas of South Asia. Oxford University Press, Digital South Asia Library. p. 147, Map "g".
- ^ a b Eaton 2019, p. 38.
- ISBN 978-92-3-103467-1.
- ^ Thomas 2018, p. 26, Figure I:2.
- ISBN 978-1-317-47681-8.
- ISBN 978-92-3-103467-1.
In 1201 Ghurid troops entered Khurasan and captured Nishapur, Merv, Sarakhs and Tus, reaching as far as Gurgan and Bistam. Kuhistan, a stronghold of the Ismailis, was plundered and all Khurasan was brought temporarily under Ghurid control
- ^ a b c d e f g Bosworth 2001b.
- ISBN 978-90-04-43736-4.
In 1205, Bakhtīyar Khilji sacked Nudiya, the pre-eminent city of western Bengal and established an Islamic government at Laukhnauti, the capital of the predecessor Sena dynasty. On this occasion, commemorative coins were struck in gold and silver in the name of Muhammad b. Sām
- ^ Auer 2021, p. 6.
- ^ Firuzkuh: the summer capital of the Ghurids Archived 6 April 2012 at the Wayback Machine, by David Thomas, pg. 18.
- ^ The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art & Architecture: Three-volume set, by Jonathan Bloom, Sheila Blair, pg. 108.
- ^ The Development of Persian Culture under the Early Ghaznavids, C.E. Bosworth, Iran, Vol. 6, (1968), 35;;"Like the Ghaznavids whom they supplanted, the Ghurids had their court poets, and these wrote in Persian"
- ^ a b c O'Neal 2015.
- ISBN 9780906094037.
- ^ The Ghurids, K.A. Nizami, History of Civilizations of Central Asia, Vol.4, Part 1, ed. M.S. Asimov and C.E. Bosworth, (Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, 1999), 178.
- ISBN 978-0-19-977311-4.
- ISBN 978-3-319-51213-6.
- ^ Elphinstone, Mountstuart. The History of India. Vol. 1. J. Murray, 1841. Web. 29 April 2010. Link: "...the prevalent and apparently the correct opinion is, that both they and their subjects were Afghans. " & "In the time of Sultan Mahmud it was held, as has been observed, by a prince whom Ferishta calls Mohammed Soory (or Sur) Afghan." p.598-599
- ^ A short history of India: and of the frontier states of Afghanistan, Nipal, and Burma, Wheeler, James Talboys Archived 9 June 2007 at the Wayback Machine, (LINK): "The next conqueror after Mahmud who made a name in India, was Muhammad Ghori, the Afghan."
- ^ Balfour, Edward. The Cyclopædia of India and of Eastern and Southern Asia, Commercial Industrial, and Scientific: Products of the Mineral, Vegetable, and Animal Kingdoms, Useful Arts and Manufactures. 3rd ed. Vol. 2. London: Bernard Quaritch, 1885. Web. 29 April 2010. Link: "IZ-ud-DIN Husain, the founder of the Ghori dynaasty, was a native of Afghanistan. The origin of the house of Ghor has, however, been much discussed, – the prevailing opinion being that both they and their subjects were an Afghan race. " p.392
- ^ a b M. Longworth Dames; G. Morgenstierne; R. Ghirshman (1999). "AFGHĀNISTĀN". Encyclopaedia of Islam (CD-ROM Edition v. 1.0 ed.). Leiden, The Netherlands: Koninklijke Brill NV.
"... there is no evidence for assuming that the inhabitants of Ghūr were originally Pashto-speaking (cf. Dames, in E I1). If we are to believe the Paṭa Khazāna (see below, iii), the legendary Amīr Karōṝ, grandson of Shansab, (8th century) was a Pashto poet, but this for various reasons is very improbable ..."
- ISBN 978-0-19-565114-0.
The dynamics of north Indian politics changed dramatically, however, when the Ghurids, a dynasty of Tajik (eastern Iranian), origina arrived from central Afghanistan towards the end of twelfth century
- ^ Encyclopaedia of Islam, "Ghurids", C.E. Bosworth, Online Edition, 2006: "... The Shansabānīs were, like the rest of the Ghūrīs, of eastern Iranian Tājik stock ..."
- ^ Wink 2020, p. 78.
- ^ Cynthia Talbot, The Last Hindu Emperor: Prithviraj Chauhan and the Indian Past, 1200–2000, (Cambridge University Press, 2016), 36.
- ISBN 978-0-691-18074-8.
- ISBN 978-0-415-58061-8.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-521-85031-5.
- ISBN 978-0-691-12594-7.
- ^ Encyclopaedia of Islam, "Ghurids", C.E. Bosworth, Online Edition, 2006: "... There is nothing to confirm the recent surmise that the Ghūids were Pashto-speaking [...] the Paṭa Khazāna "Treasury of secrets", claims to include Pashto poetry from the Ghūid period, but the significance of this work has not yet been evaluated ..."
- ^ "Encyclopaedia Iranica (Ghurids)". iranicaonline.org.
Ḡazna and Bost suffered frightful sackings by ʿAlāʾ-al-Dīn Ḥosayn, in which colleges and libraries were despoiled, and the buildings of previous sultans destroyed (Jūzjānī, pp. 343-45; Čahār maqāla, ed. Qazvīnī, p. 31), earning him the uneviable epithet of Jahānsūz (world incendiary).
- ^ a b Bosworth 2001a, pp. 578–583.
- ^ Wink 1991, p. 136.
- ^ Thomas 2018, p. 55.
- ^ Thomas 2018, p. 56.
- ^ a b Wink 1991, p. 138.
- ^ Wink 1991, p. 136-137.
- ^ Bosworth 1968, p. 163.
- ISBN 978-1-4008-3324-5.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-4008-3324-5.
- ^ Bosworth, Edmond. "Encyclopaedia Iranica (Ghurids)". iranicaonline.org.
In the west, Ḡīāṯ-al-Dīn, often in concert with his brother, extended his suzerainty over the maleks of Nīmrūz or Sīstān and even over the Kermān branch of the Saljuqs.
- ^ a b c Encyclopaedia Iranica, Ghurids.
The actual fighting in Khorasan at this time was largely between the Ghurids and Tekeš's brother Solṭānšāh, who had carved out for himself personally a principality in western Khorasan, until in 586/1190. Ḡīāṯ-al–Dīn and Moʿezz-al-Dīn defeated Solṭānšāh near Marv in 588/1192, captured him, and took over his territories (Jūzjānī, I, 303-4, tr. I, pp. 246-47). When Tekeš died in 596/1200 (Ebn al-Aṯīr, Beirut, XII, pp. 156-58), Ḡīāṯ-al-Dīn was able to take over most of the towns of Khorasan as far west as Besṭām in Qūmes.
- ^ Encyclopaedia Iranica, Ghurids.
ʿAlāʾ-al-Dīn Ḥosayn's expansionist policies raised the Ghurids into a power of significance well beyond Ḡūr itself. Latterly, he was able to take advantage of a certain power-vacuum in the eastern Islamic world which had arisen through the decay of the Ghaznavids and the collapse of Saljuq power in Khorasan consequent on Sanjar's defeat and capture by the Ḡozz (q.v.) in 548/1153.
- ^ "Encyclopedia Iranica, Sanjar". iranicaonline.org.
- OCLC 31870180.
At this juncture Sultan Ghiyasuddin Ghuri died at Herat on 27 Jamadi I.A H 599 (13 March A.D 1203)
- ^ Bosworth 1968, p. 168.
- ^ Chandra 2007, p. 73:"Muizzuddin led his last campaign into India in 1206 in order to deal with the Khokhar rebellion. He resorted to large-scale slaughter of the Khokhars and cowed them down. On his way back to Ghazni, he was killed by a Muslim fanatic belonging to a rival sect"
- ISBN 0226742210.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-691-18074-8.
- ISBN 978-81-215-1010-3.
Obverse: horseman to left holding a mace, margin with date in Nagari Samvat 1262 Bhadrapada . Reverse : legend in Nagari śrīmat mahamada sāmaḥ . Issued in AD 1204
- ^ Thapar 2004, p. 421,433–434: "The campigns saw Muhammad in control of Lahore and led to the visions of further conquests in India. An attack was launched on the Rajput kingdoms controlling the watershed and the western Ganges Plain, now beginning to be viewed as the frontier.."
- ^ Thapar 2004, p. 433.
- ^ Wink 1991, p. 139-140.
- ^ a b c d e f Eaton 2019, pp. 39–45.
- ^ Wink 1991, p. 143.
- ^ a b Thapar 2004, p. 434.
- OCLC 4413150.
- ^ Chandra 2007, p. 68: "In 1173, Shahabuddin, Muhammad (1173–1206 (also known as Muizzuddin Muhammad bin Sam) ascended the throne at Ghazni, while his elder brother was ruling at Ghur. Proceeding by way of the Gomal pass, Muizzuddin Muhammad conquered Multan and Uchch. In 1178, he attempted to penetrate into Gujarat by marching across the Rajputana desert. But the Gujarat ruler completely routed him in a battle near Mount Abu, and Muizzuddin Muhammad was lucky in escaping alive. He now realised the necessity of creating a suitable base in the Punjab before venturing upon the conquest of India. Accordingly he launched a campaign against the Ghaznavid possessions in the Punjab. By 1190, Muizzuddin Muhammad had conquered Peshawar, Lahore and Sialkot, and was poised fora thrust towards Delhi and the Gangetic doab"
- ^ Bosworth 1977, p. 129.
- ^ Wink 1991, p. 144.
- ^ Bosworth 2001a.
- ^ a b Eaton, Richard M. (1993). The Rise of Islam and the Bengal Frontier, 1204–1760. Berkeley · Los Angeles · London: UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESS. p. Chapter 1–2.
- ISBN 978-0-415-32919-4.
"The first battle of Tarain was won by the Rajput confederacy led by Prithviraj Chauhan of Ajmer. But when Muhammad of Ghur returned the following year with 10,000 archers on horseback he vanquished Prithviraj and his army
- ^ Thapar 2004, p. 434-435.
- ISBN 978-81-7156-928-1.
- ISBN 978-81-7156-928-1.
- ^ a b Mohammad Habib (1981). K. A. Nizami (ed.). Politics And Society During The Early Medieval Period Vol. 2. People's Publishing House. p. 116.
In the winter of A.D. 1194–1195 Shihabuddin once more marched into Hindustan and invaded the doab. Rai Jaichand moved forward to met him....then description of Chandwar struggle (...) Shihabuddin captured the treasure fort of Asni and then proceeded to Benaras, 'where he converted about thousand idol-temples into house for the Musalmans.
- ISBN 978-81-7156-928-1.
- ^ Chandra 2007, p. 71: "In 1194, Muizzuddin returned to India. He crossed the Jamuna with 50,000 cavalry and moved towards Kanauj. A hotly contested battle between Muizzuddin and Jaichandra was fought at Chandawar near Kanauj. We are told that Jaichandra had almost carried the day when he was killed by an arrow, and his army was totally defeated. Muizzuddin now moved on to Banaras which was ravaged, a large number of temples there being destroyed"
- ^ ISBN 978-1-60606-616-4.
And then, in 1193, Qutb-ud-din Aibek, the military commander of Muhammad of Ghor's army, marched towards Varanasi, where he is said to have destroyed idols in a thousand temples. Sarnath very likely was among the casualties of this invasion, one all too often seen as a Muslim invasion whose primary purpose was iconoclasm. It was of course, like any premodern military invasion, intended to acquire land and wealth
- ISBN 978-1-60606-616-4.
- ^ ISBN 978-81-7156-928-1.
- ^ Sisirkumar Mitra 1977, pp. 123–126.
- ^ Thapar 2004, p. 434,436.
- ISBN 978-93-5479-159-8.
After the arrival of Islam, the universities such as Nalanda and Vikramshila were no longer existent. The destruction of Nalanda by Bakhtiyar Khalji was the last nail in this pre-Islamic Indic university, which had survived three major destructions
- ISBN 978-981-12-2453-9.
- ISBN 978-90-04-43736-4.
- OCLC 1031074.
Tradition gives him credit for the conquest of Bengal but as a matter of fact he could not subjugate the greater part of Bengal ... All that Bakhtyār can justly take credit for is that by his conquest of Western and a part of Northern Bengal he laid the foundation of the Muslim State in Bengal. The historians of the 13th century never attributed the conquest of the whole of Bengal to Bakhtyār.
- OCLC 883279992.
The Turkish arms penetrated into Bihar and Bengal, through the enterprising efforts of Ikhtiyaruddin Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khalji ... he started plundering raids into Bihar and, within four or five years, occupied a large part of it ... Nadia was sacked by the Turks and a few districts of Bengal (Malda, Dinajpur, Murshidabad and Birbhum) were occupied by them ... Bathtiyar Khalji could not retain his hold over Nadia and made Lakhnauti or Gaur as his capital.
- ISBN 9788185078687.
- OCLC 31870180.
- ISBN 9780275981013.
- ISBN 978-81-241-1064-5.
- ^ Bosworth 1968, p. 164.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-313-00111-6.
- ISBN 978-81-241-1064-5.
- ^ Bosworth 1968, p. 165.
- ^ Ira M. Lapidus, A History of Islamic Societies 2nd ed. Cambridge University Press 2002
- ^ Bosworth, Edmond. "Encyclopaedia Iranica (Ghurids)". iranicaonline.org.
The Ghurids adopted the role of defenders of Sunnism. They had cordial relations with the ʿAbbasids in Baghdad, frequently exchanging embassies (Jūzjānī's father took part in one of the last, Jūzjānī, I, p. 361, tr. p. 383). Ḡīāṯ-al-Dīn was admitted to al-Nāṣer's fotūwa order, and the caliph more than once urged the Ghurids to halt the advance into western Persia of the Ḵᵛārazmšāhs (Jūzjānī, I, 302, tr. I, p. 243).
- ISBN 978-1-4008-3324-5.
- ^ Persian Literature in the Safavid Period, Z. Safa, The Cambridge history of Iran: The Timurid and Safavid periods, Vol.6, Ed. Peter Jackson and Laurence Lockhart,(Cambridge University Press, 1986), 951;"...Ghurids and Ghurid mamluks, all of whom established centres in India where poets and writers received ample encouragement.".
- ISBN 978-1-78673-383-2.
- ^ Hambly & Asher 1994, pp. 242–250.
- ^ Auer 2021, p. 30.
- ^ Auer 2021, p. 12.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-415-58061-8.
- ^ Eaton 2019, pp. 48–49.
- ISBN 978-1-4008-3324-5.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-58839-589-4.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-85773-343-6. Retrieved 18 November 2022.
- ^ "Ewer". The Metropolitan Museum of Art.
- ^ a b "Ewer". The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Retrieved 4 January 2024.
At the time that this ewer and the group of long-necked ewers to which it relates were produced, Herat was under the control of the Ghurids, not the Seljuqs, but evidence strongly suggests that these pieces were exported to centers in Seljuq Iran and elsewhere.
- ^ Metropolitan Museum of Art notice
Bibliography
- Auer, Blain (2021). In the Mirror of Persian Kings: The Origins of Perso-Islamic Courts and Empires in India. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1108832311.
- ISBN 978-0-85224-315-2.
- ISBN 0-521-06936-X. (subscription required)
- Bosworth, C. Edmund (2001a). "Ghaznavids". Encyclopædia Iranica, online edition, Vol. X, Fasc. 6. New York. pp. 578–583.)
{{cite encyclopedia}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link - Bosworth, C. Edmund (2001b). "Ghurids". Encyclopædia Iranica, online edition, Vol. X, Fasc. 6. New York. pp. 586–590.
{{cite encyclopedia}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - Bosworth, C.E. (2015). "The Ghurids in Khurasan". In Peacock, A.C.S.; Tor, D.G. (eds.). Medieval Central Asia and the Persianate World: Iranian Tradition and Islamic Civilisation. I.B. Tauris.
- ISBN 978-81-250-3226-7.
- ISBN 978-0713995824.
- ISBN 0-521-20093-8.
- Hambly, Gavin R. G.; Asher, Catherine B. (1994). "Delhi Sultanate". In ISBN 978-1-56859-021-9.
- Morgan, David; Stewart, Sarah, eds. (2017). The Coming of the Mongols. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-1788312851.
- Niyogi, Roma (1959). The History of the Gāhaḍavāla Dynasty. Oriental. OCLC 5386449.
- O'Neal, Michael (2015). "Ghūrids". In Fleet, Kate; ISSN 1873-9830.
- Sisirkumar Mitra (1977). The Early Rulers of Khajurāho. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 9788120819979.
- ISBN 978-0-520-24225-8.
- Thomas, David (2018). The Ebb and Flow of the Ghūrid Empire. Sydney University Press. ISBN 978-1-74332-542-1.
- ISBN 978-1108417747.
- ISBN 9004102361.