Giorgio Agamben

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Giorgio Agamben
Philosophy of life[1]
Main interests
Aesthetics
Political philosophy
Social philosophy
Notable ideas
Homo sacer
State of exception
Whatever singularity
Bare life
Auctoritas
Form-of-life
The zoebios distinction as the "fundamental categorial pair of Western politics"[2]
The paradox of sovereignty[3]

Giorgio Agamben (

philosopher best known for his work investigating the concepts of the state of exception,[7] form-of-life (borrowed from Ludwig Wittgenstein) and homo sacer. The concept of biopolitics (carried forth from the work of Michel Foucault
) informs many of his writings.

Biography

Agamben was educated at the

Hegel) in 1966 and 1968.[8] In the 1970s, he worked primarily on linguistics, philology, poetics, and topics in medieval culture. During this period, Agamben began to elaborate his primary concerns, although their political bearings were not yet made explicit. In 1974–1975 he was a fellow at the Warburg Institute, University of London, due to the courtesy of Frances Yates, whom he met through Italo Calvino
. During this fellowship, Agamben began to develop his second book, Stanzas (1977).

Agamben was close to the poets Giorgio Caproni and José Bergamín, and to the Italian novelist Elsa Morante, to whom he devoted the essays "The Celebration of the Hidden Treasure" (in The End of the Poem) and "Parody" (in Profanations). He has been a friend and collaborator to such eminent intellectuals as Pier Paolo Pasolini (in whose The Gospel According to St. Matthew he played the part of Philip), Italo Calvino (with whom he collaborated, for a short while, as advisor to the publishing house Einaudi and developed plans for a journal), Ingeborg Bachmann, Pierre Klossowski, Guy Debord, Jean-Luc Nancy, Jacques Derrida, Antonio Negri, Jean-François Lyotard and many, many others.

His strongest influences include Martin Heidegger, Walter Benjamin and Michel Foucault. Agamben edited Benjamin's collected works in Italian translation until 1996, and called Benjamin's thought "the antidote that allowed me to survive Heidegger".[9] In 1981, Agamben discovered several important lost manuscripts by Benjamin in the archives of the Bibliothèque nationale de France. Benjamin had left these manuscripts to Georges Bataille when he fled Paris shortly before his death. The most relevant of these to Agamben's own later work were Benjamin's manuscripts for his theses On the Concept of History.[10] Agamben has engaged since the nineties in a debate with the political writings of the German jurist Carl Schmitt, most extensively in the study State of Exception (2003). His recent writings also elaborate on the concepts of Michel Foucault, whom he calls "a scholar from whom I have learned a great deal in recent years".[11]

Agamben's political thought was founded on his readings of

European Community was under debate. Agamben proposed his own model of a community which would not presuppose categories of identity in The Coming Community (1990).[13] At this time, Agamben also analyzed the ontological condition and "political" attitude of Bartleby (from Herman Melville's short story) – a scrivener
who "prefers not" to write.

Currently, Agamben is teaching at

Heinrich Heine University, Düsseldorf. Agamben received the Prix Européen de l'Essai Charles Veillon in 2006.[15]

In 2013 he was awarded the Dr. Leopold Lucas Prize by the University of Tübingen for his work titled Leviathans Rätsel (Leviathan's Riddle, translated into English by Paul Silas Peterson).[16][17]

Work

Much of Agamben's work since the 1980s can be viewed as leading up to the so-called Homo Sacer project, which properly begins with the book Homo Sacer: Sovereign Power and Bare Life. In this series of works, Agamben responds to Hannah Arendt's and Foucault's studies of totalitarianism and biopolitics. Since 1995 he has been best known for this ongoing project, the volumes of which have been published out of order, and which include:

  • Homo Sacer: Sovereign Power and Bare Life (1995)[18]
  • State of Exception. Homo Sacer II, 1 (2003)[19]
  • Stasis: Civil War as a Political Paradigm. Homo Sacer II, 2 (2015)[20]
  • The Sacrament of Language: An Archaeology of the Oath. Homo Sacer II, 3 (2008)[21][22]
  • The Kingdom and the Glory: For a Theological Genealogy of Economy and Government. Homo Sacer II, 4 (2007)[23][22]
  • Opus Dei: An Archeology of Duty. Homo Sacer II, 5 (2013)[24]
  • Remnants of Auschwitz: The Witness and the Archive. Homo Sacer III (1998).[25]
  • The Highest Poverty: Monastic Rules and Forms-of-Life. Homo Sacer IV, 1 (2013)[26]
  • The Use of Bodies. Homo Sacer IV, 2 (2016)[27]

In 2017, these works were collected and published as The Omnibus Homo Sacer.

In the final volume of the series, Agamben intends to address "the concepts of forms-of-life and lifestyles." "What I call a form-of-life," he explains, "is a life which can never be separated from its form, a life in which it is never possible to separate something like bare life. […] [H]ere too the concept of privacy comes in to play."[28]

If human beings were or had to be this or that substance, this or that destiny, no ethical experience would be possible… This does not mean, however, that humans are not, and do not have to be, something, that they are simply consigned to nothingness and therefore can freely decide whether to be or not to be, to adopt or not to adopt this or that destiny (nihilism and decisionism coincide at this point). There is in effect something that humans are and have to be, but this is not an essence nor properly a thing: It is the simple fact of one's own existence as possibility or potentiality…

— Giorgio Agamben, The Coming Community (1993), section 11.

The reduction of life to 'biopolitics' is one of the main threads in Agamben's work, in his critical conception of a homo sacer, reduced to 'bare life', and thus deprived of any rights. Agamben's concept of the homo sacer rests on a crucial distinction in Greek between "bare life" (la vita nuda or zoê

concentration camps of World War II. "The camp is the space that is opened when the state of exception begins to become the rule." Agamben says that "What happened in the camps so exceeds (is outside of) the juridical concept of crime that the specific juridico-political structure in which those events took place is often simply omitted from consideration." The conditions in the camps were "conditio inhumana," and the incarcerated somehow defined outside the boundaries of humanity, under the exception laws of Schutzhaft
. Where law is based on vague, unspecific concepts such as "race" or "good morals," law and the personal subjectivity of the judicial agent are no longer distinct.

In the process of creating a state of exception these effects can compound. In a realized state of exception, one who has been accused of committing a crime, within the legal system, loses the ability to use his/her voice and represent themselves. The individual can not only be deprived of their citizenship, but also of any form of agency over their own life. "Agamben identifies the state of exception with the power of decision over life."[29]

Within the state of exception, the distinction between bios (the life of the citizen) and zoê (the life of homo sacer) is made by those with judicial power. For example, Agamben would argue that Guantánamo Bay exemplifies the concept of 'the state of exception' in the United States following 9/11.[citation needed]

Agamben mentions that basic universal

hunger strikes at Guantánamo Bay prison, accusations and founded claims of forced feedings began to surface in the autumn of 2005. In February 2006, The New York Times reported that prisoners were being force fed in Guantánamo Bay prison and in March 2006, more than 250 medical experts, as reported by the BBC,[31]
voiced their opinions of the forced feedings stating that this was a breach of the government's power and was against the rights of the prisoners.

The Coming Community (1993)

In The Coming Community, published in 1990 and translated by longtime admirer Michael Hardt in 1993, Agamben describes the social and political manifestation of his philosophical thought. Employing diverse short essays he describes the nature of "whatever singularity" as that which has an "inessential commonality, a solidarity that in no way concerns an essence". It is important to note his understanding of "whatever" not as being indifference but based on the Latin "quodlibet ens"[32] translated as "being such that it always matters".

Agamben starts off by describing "The Lovable":

Love is never directed toward this or that property of the loved one (being blond, being small, being tender, being lame), but neither does it neglect the properties in favor of an insipid generality (universal love): The lover wants the loved one with all of its predicates, its being such as it is.

— Giorgio Agamben, The Coming Community[33]

Similarly, Agamben discusses "ease" as the “place” of love, or more precisely, love as the encounter with a unique moment (“love as the experience of taking-place in a whatever singularity"), which resonates with his utilization of the concept of "use" in his later writings.

In this sense, ease names perfectly that "free use of the proper" that, according to an expression of Friedrich Hölderlin's, is "the most difficult task."

— Giorgio Agamben, The Coming Community[34]

Following the same trend, he employs, among others, the following to describe the "watershed of whatever":

  • Example – particular and universal
  • Limbo – blessed and damned
  • Homonym – concept and idea
  • Halo – potentiality and actuality
  • Face – common and proper, genus and individual
  • Threshold – inside and outside
  • Coming community – state and non-state (humanity)[35]

Other themes addressed in The Coming Community include the commodification of the body, evil, and the messianic.

Unlike other continental philosophers he does not reject the dichotomies of subject/object and potentiality/actuality outright, but rather turns them inside-out, pointing out the zone where they become indistinguishable.

Matter that does not remain beneath form, but surrounds it with a halo.

— Giorgio Agamben, The Coming Community[35]

The political task of humanity, he argues, is to expose the innate potential in this zone of indistinguishability. And although criticised as dreaming the impossible by certain authors,[36] he nonetheless shows a concrete example of whatever singularity acting politically:

Whatever singularity, which wants to appropriate belonging itself, its own being-in-language, and thus rejects all identity and every condition of belonging, is the principal enemy of the State. Wherever these singularities peacefully demonstrate their being in common there will be Tiananmen, and, sooner or later, the tanks will appear.

— Giorgio Agamben, The Coming Community[37]

Homo Sacer: Sovereign Power and Bare Life (1998)

In his main work "Homo Sacer: Sovereign Power and Bare Life" (1998), Agamben analyzes an obscure

power in general. Under the laws of the Roman Empire, a man who committed a certain kind of crime was banned from society and all of his rights as a citizen were revoked. He thus became a "homo sacer
" (sacred man). In consequence, he could be killed by anybody, while his life on the other hand was deemed "sacred", so he could not be sacrificed in a ritual ceremony.

Although Roman law no longer applied to someone deemed a Homo sacer, they remained "under the spell" of law. This means that "human life" is "included in the juridical order solely in the form of its exclusion (that is, of its capacity to be killed)". Homo sacer was therefore both excluded from law and included at the same time. This paradoxical figure of homo sacer is the exact mirror image of the sovereign (basileus) – a king, emperor, or president – who stands, on the one hand, within law (so he can be condemned, e.g., for treason, as a natural person) and outside the law (since as a body politic he has power to suspend law for an indefinite time).

Agamben draws on Carl Schmitt's definition of the Sovereign as the one who has the power to decide the state of exception (or justitium), where law is indefinitely "suspended" without being abrogated. But while Schmitt's aim is to include the necessity of state of emergency under the rule of law, Agamben on the contrary demonstrates that all life cannot be subsumed by law. As in homo sacer, the state of emergency is the inclusion of life and necessity in the juridical order solely in the form of its exclusion.[clarification needed]

Agamben argues that laws have always assumed the authority to define "bare life" – zoe, as opposed to bios, or 'qualified life' – by making this exclusive operation, while at the same time gaining power over it by making it the subject of political control. The power of law to actively separate "political" beings (citizens) from "bare life" (bodies) has carried on from

Auschwitz. Aristotle, as Agamben notes, constitutes political life via a simultaneous inclusion and exclusion of "bare life": as Aristotle says, man is an animal born to life (Gk. ζῆν, zen), but existing with regard to the good life (εὖ ζῆν, eu zen) which can be achieved through politics.[39] Bare life, in this ancient conception of politics, is that which must be transformed, via the State, into the "good life"; that is, bare life is that which is supposedly excluded from the higher aims of the state, yet is included precisely so that it may be transformed into this "good life". Sovereignty, then, is conceived from ancient times as the power which determines what or who is to be incorporated into the political body (in accord with its bios) by means of the more originary exclusion (or exception) of what is to remain outside the political body—which is at the same time the source of that body's composition (zoe).[40] According to Agamben, biopower, which takes the bare lives of the citizens into its political calculations, may be more marked in the modern state, but has essentially existed since the beginnings of sovereignty in the West, since this structure of ex-ception is essential to the core concept of sovereignty.[41]

Agamben would continue to expand the theory of the state of exception first introduced in "Homo Sacer: Sovereign Power and Bare Life", ultimately leading to the "State of Exception" in 2005. Instead of leaving a space between law and life, the space where human action is possible, the space that used to constitute politics, he argues that politics has "contaminated itself with law" in the state of exception. Because "only human action is able to cut the relationship between violence and law", it becomes increasingly difficult within the state of exception for humanity to act against the State.

State of Exception (2005)

In this book, Agamben traces the concept of 'state of exception' (Ausnahmezustand) used by Carl Schmitt to Roman justitium and auctoritas. This leads him to a response to Carl Schmitt's definition of sovereignty as the power to proclaim the exception.

Agamben's text State of Exception investigates the increase of power by governments which they employ in supposed times of crisis. Within a state of emergency, Agamben refers to the states of exception, where constitutional rights can be diminished, superseded and rejected in the process of claiming this extension of power by a government.

The state of exception invests one person or government with the power and voice of authority over others extended well beyond where the law has existed in the past. "In every case, the state of exception marks a threshold at which logic and praxis blur with each other and a pure violence without logos claims to realize an enunciation without any real reference" (Agamben, pg 40). Agamben refers a continued state of exception to the Nazi state of Germany under Hitler's rule. "The entire Third Reich can be considered a state of exception that lasted twelve years. In this sense, modern totalitarianism can be defined as the establishment, by means of the state of exception, of a legal civil war that allows for the physical elimination not only of political adversaries but of entire categories of citizens who for some reason cannot be integrated into the political system" (Agamben, p. 2).

The political power over others acquired through the state of exception, places one government—or one form or branch of government—as all powerful, operating outside the laws. During such times of extension of power, certain forms of knowledge shall be privileged and accepted as true and certain voices shall be heard as valued, while of course, many others are not. This oppressive distinction holds great importance in relation to the production of knowledge. The process of both acquiring knowledge, and suppressing certain knowledge, is a violent act within a time of crisis.

Agamben's State of Exception investigates how the suspension of laws within a state of emergency or crisis can become a prolonged state of being. More specifically, Agamben addresses how this prolonged state of exception operates to deprive individuals of their citizenship. When speaking about the military order issued by President

enemy combatants
." Until 7 July 2006, these individuals had been treated outside the Geneva Conventions by the United States administration.

Auctoritas, "charisma" and Führertum doctrine

Agamben shows that auctoritas and potestas are clearly distinct – although they form together a binary system".[43] He quotes Mommsen, who explains that auctoritas is "less than an order and more than an advice".[44]

While potestas derives from social function, auctoritas "immediately derives from the patres personal condition". As such, it is akin to Max Weber's concept of charisma. This is why the tradition ordered, at the king's death, the creation of the sovereign's wax-double in the funus imaginarium, as Ernst Kantorowicz demonstrated in The King's Two Bodies (1957). Hence, it is necessary to distinguish two bodies of the sovereign in order to assure the continuity of dignitas (term used by Kantorowicz, here a synonym of auctoritas). Moreover, in the person detaining auctoritas—the sovereign—public life and private life have become inseparable. Augustus, the first Roman emperor who claimed auctoritas as the basis of princeps status in a famous passage of Res Gestae, had opened up his house to public eyes.

The concept of auctoritas played a key-role in fascism and Nazism, in particular concerning Carl Schmitt's theories, argues Agamben:

To understand modern phenomena such as the fascist

biopolitical tradition of auctoritas and not to the juridical tradition of potestas.[45]

Thus, Agamben opposes Foucault's concept of "biopolitics" to right (law), as he defines the state of exception, in Homo sacer, as the inclusion of life by right under the figure of ex-ception, which is simultaneously inclusion and exclusion. Following Walter Benjamin's lead, he explains that our task would be to radically differentiate "pure violence" from right, instead of tying them together, as did Carl Schmitt.

Agamben concludes his chapter on "Auctoritas and potestas" writing:

It is significative that modern specialists were so inclined to admit that auctoritas was inherent to the living person of the pater or the princeps. What was evidently an ideology or a fictio aiming to be the groundwork of auctoritas' preeminence or, at least, specific rank compared to potestas thus became a figure of right's {law – "droit"}

Führertum doctrine as the original and personal power of a leader. In 1933, in a short article intending to define the fundamental concepts of national-socialism, Schmitt defines the Führung principle by the "root identity between the leader and his entourage".{"identité de souche entre le chef et son entourage"}[46]

Agamben's thoughts on the state of emergency leads him to declare that the difference between dictatorship and democracy is thin indeed, as

, issued on 28 February 1933. Indefinite suspension of law is what characterizes the state of exception.

The Highest Poverty (2011)

The English edition was translated by Adam Kotsko. In this study of medieval monastic rules, Agamben offers a genealogical approach to several concepts that

rule-following, form-of-life, and the central importance of 'use' (for Wittgenstein: 'the meaning of a word is its use in language', and he uses 'language' not just to speak of word-language but any understandable behaviour). Agamben traces earlier versions of the term 'form-of-life' throughout the development of monastic life, beginning with the establishment of a genre of written rules in the fourth century.[47] The aim of the book is to differentiate between 'law' and a particular use of rule that is opposite to the implementation of law. In order to sketch out the potential of this concept, we would need 'a theory of use – of which Western philosophy lacks even the most elementary principles'.[47] Agamben turns to the Franciscans to survey a unique historical incident of a group organising itself with a rule that is their life, and thinking of their own lives not as their own possession but as a communal 'use'; he examines the ways in which this idea developed and how it eventually lapsed into the law of the Catholic Church
. According to reviewer Nathan Schneider, "The Highest Poverty examines two medieval Christian attempts, in the name of eternal life, to live this life beyond the reach of ordinary politics: several centuries of monasticism, and then the brief and momentous epiphany in the movement founded by Francis of Assisi. Each, according to Agamben, fails in revealing ways."[48]

Criticism of US response to 9/11

Giorgio Agamben is particularly critical of the United States' response to

Nazis did during World War II.[49]

However, Agamben's criticisms target a broader scope than the US "

identity cards.[50] Furthermore, Agamben's political criticisms open up in a larger philosophical critique
of the concept of sovereignty itself, which he argues is intrinsically related to the state of exception.

Statements on COVID-19

Agamben, in an article published by Il Manifesto on 26 February 2020, quoted the NRC in saying that there was no COVID-19 pandemic: "In order to make sense of the frantic, irrational, and absolutely unwarranted emergency measures adopted for a supposed epidemic of coronavirus, we must begin from the declaration of the Italian National Research Council (NRC), according to which 'there is no SARS-CoV2 epidemic in Italy.' and 'the infection, according to the epidemiological data available as of today and based on tens of thousands of cases, causes light/moderate symptoms (a variant of flu) in 80–90% of cases. In 10–15%, there is a chance of pneumonia, but which also has a benign outcome in the large majority of cases. We estimate that only 4% of patients require intensive therapy.'"[51][52][53] Agamben argued that “the health emergency was being exaggerated” to create a state of exception.[54] Agamben's views were strongly criticised by Sergio Benvenuto, Roberto Esposito, Divya Dwivedi, Shaj Mohan, Jean-Luc Nancy, Benjamin H. Bratton, and others.[55][56]

Bibliography

Agamben's major books are listed in order of first Italian publication (with the exception of Potentialities, which first appeared in English), and English translations are listed where available. There are translations of most writings in German, French, Portuguese, and Spanish.

Articles and essays

See also

Notes and references

  1. ^ David Kishik, The Power of Life: Agamben and the Coming Politics, Stanford University Press, 2012, pp. 3 and 45.
  2. ^ Homo Sacer, Stanford UP, 1998, p. 8.
  3. ^ The paradox "consists in the fact the sovereign is, at the same time, outside and inside the juridical order." (Agamben, Homo Sacer, Stanford UP, 1998, p. 15)
  4. .
  5. .
  6. .
  7. ^ Generally speaking, "state of exception" includes German Notstand, English state of emergency and others martial law. Agamben prefers using this term as it underlines the structure of ex-ception, which is simultaneously of inclusion and exclusion. "Ex-ception" can be opposed to the concept of "example" as developed by Immanuel Kant.
  8. ^ See Martin Heidegger, Four Seminars (Bloomington, IN: Indiana UP, 2003).
  9. ^ Leland de la Durantaye, Giorgio Agamben: A Critical Introduction (Stanford, CA: Stanford UP, 2009), p. 53.
  10. ^ See de la Durantaye, pp. 148–49.
  11. ^ The Signature of All Things: On Method (New York: Zone, 2009), p. 7.
  12. Aléa, which was edited at that time by Christian Bourgois
    . Cf. Jean-Luc Nancy, La communauté désoeuvrée (Paris: Christian Bourgois, 1983). In English transl., The Inoperative Community (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1991).
  13. ^ Cf. Greg Bird. Containing Community: From Political Economy to Ontology in Agamben, Esposito, and Nancy (Albany, SUNY Press, 2016).
  14. ^ See: Giorgio Agamben Faculty profile at European Graduate School[failed verification] Archived 26 March 2010 at the Wayback Machine
  15. ^ Fondation Charles Veillon Archived 11 May 2008 at the Wayback Machine Prix Européen de l'Essai. 2006
  16. ^ "Lucas-Preis Bisherige Preisträger". uni-tuebingen.de. Retrieved 18 July 2021.
  17. ISBN 978-3-16-153195-8. Archived from the original
    on 12 August 2014.
  18. ^ Homo Sacer, Stanford University Press
  19. ^ [1] State of Exception, University of Chicago Press
  20. ^ Stasis – Stanford University Press
  21. ^ The Sacrament of Language – Stanford University Press
  22. ^ a b The Omnibus Homo Sacer - Stanford University Press
  23. ^ The Kingdom and the Glory – Stanford University Press
  24. ^ Opus Dei Archived 8 August 2013 at the Wayback Machine – Stanford University Press
  25. ^ Remnants of Auschwitz Archived 12 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine, Zone Books
  26. ^ The Highest Poverty Archived 26 September 2013 at the Wayback Machine – Stanford University Press
  27. ^ The Use of Bodies – Stanford University Press
  28. ^ Ulrich Rauff, "An Interview with Giorgio Agamben," German Law Journal 5.5 (2004): 613. Archived 24 August 2004 at the Wayback Machine
  29. Jacques Ranciere
    . Who is the Subject of the Rights of Man? South Atlantic Quarterly, 2004, 103(2–3):297–310.
  30. ^ Mary Douglas. Purity and Danger: An Analysis of Concepts of Pollution and Taboo (1966) London: Ark Paperbacks, 1984, p. 116
  31. ^ "Doctors attack US over Guantanamo"
  32. ^ Carlo Salzani, Quodlibet: Giorgio Agamben's Anti-Utopia
  33. ^ The Coming Community (1993), page 2.
  34. ^ The Coming Community (1993), page 25.
  35. ^ a b The Coming Community (1993)[page needed]
  36. ^ Tony Simoes da Silva. Strip It Bare – Agamben's Message For A More Hopeful World. Book Review. 2005 Archived 15 June 2013 at the Wayback Machine
  37. ^ The Coming Community (1993), page 86.
  38. ^ Homo Sacer, p. 8
  39. ^ Homo Sacer, Stanford UP, 1998, p. 66.
  40. ^ "Sovereign violence is in truth founded not on a pact but on the exclusive inclusion of bare life in the state." (Homo Sacer, Stanford UP, 1998, p. 107)
  41. ^ Of course, this understanding of "biopower" is distinct from Foucault's use of the term.
  42. ^ "The Detainees - The Guantánamo Docket". www.nytimes.com. Retrieved 28 January 2021.
  43. ^ State of Exception (2005)[page needed]
  44. ^ Theodor Mommsen, Römisches Staatsrecht ("Roman Constitutional Law", volume III) (Graz, 1969)
  45. ^ State of Exception, chapter 6: "Auctoritas and potestas", §7.
  46. ^ State of Exception, chapter 6, §8.
  47. ^ a b Giorgio Agamben. The Highest Poverty: Monastic Rules and Form-of-Life. Translated by Adam Kotsko. Stanford CA: Stanford University Press 2013, p.xiii.
  48. ^ Schneider, Nathan (13 December 2013). "Commies for Christ". The New Inquiry.
  49. Le Monde Diplomatique
    (in French) – via Ratical
  50. ^ "Non à la biométrie" [No to Biometrics], Le Monde (in French), 5 December 2005 – via Souriez
  51. ^ "Lo stato d'eccezione provocato da un'emergenza immotivata". Il manifesto (in Italian). 25 February 2020.
  52. ^ "Giorgio Agamben e o novo estado de exceção graças ao coronavírus" [Giorgio Agamben and the new state of exception due to the coronavirus]. IHU (in Portuguese). Unisinos.
  53. ^ "Coronavirus and philosophers". European Journal of Psychoanalysis. Retrieved 18 May 2020.
  54. ^ Chambers, Claire (27 December 2021). "Unreliable Witnesses?". 3 Quarks Daily. Retrieved 20 November 2022.
  55. ^ "On Pandemics. Nancy, Dwivedi, Mohan, Esposito, Nancy, Ronchi". European Journal of Psychoanalysis. Retrieved 4 January 2021.
  56. ^ "Agamben WTF, or How Philosophy Failed the Pandemic". Versobooks.com. Retrieved 22 January 2023.

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