Global commons
Global commons is a term typically used to describe international, supranational, and global
may also meet the definition of a global commons.Definition and usage
"Global commons" is a term typically used to describe international,
The term "commons" originates from the term
The term "global commons" is typically used to indicate the earth's shared natural resources, such as the deep
According to the World Conservation Strategy, a report on conservation published by the
"A commons is a tract of land or water owned or used jointly by the members of a community. The global commons includes those parts of the Earth's surface beyond national jurisdictions — notably the open ocean and the living resources found there — or held in common — notably the atmosphere. The only landmass that may be regarded as part of the global commons is Antarctica ..."[8]
Today, the
Management of the global commons
The key challenge of the global commons is the design of governance structures and management systems capable of addressing the complexity of multiple public and private interests, subject to often unpredictable changes, ranging from the local to the global level.
There are several key differences in management of resources in the global commons from those of the commons, in general.
Several
The global ocean
The global or
In addition to providing significant means of transportation, a large proportion of all
At a fundamental level, marine life helps determine the very nature of our planet. Marine life resources provide food (especially
The United Nations Environment Programme (
Atmosphere
The atmosphere is a complex dynamic natural gaseous system that is essential to support life on planet Earth. A primary concern for management of the global atmosphere is
Pollution of breathable
The 1979
Polar regions
The eight Arctic nations
Climate change in the Arctic region is leading to widespread ecosystem restructuring.[29] The distribution of species is changing along with the structure of food webs. Changes in ocean circulation appear responsible for the first exchanges of zooplankton between the North Pacific and North Atlantic regions in perhaps 800,000 years. These changes can allow the transmission of diseases from subarctic animals to Arctic ones, and vice versa, posing an additional threat to species already stressed by habitat loss and other impacts. Where these changes lead is not yet clear, but are likely to have far-reaching impacts on Arctic marine ecosystems.
Climate models tend to reinforce that temperature trends due to global warming will be much smaller in Antarctica than in the Arctic,[30] but ongoing research may show otherwise.[31][32]
Outer space
Management of
Scientists have outlined rationale for governance that regulates the current free
Policies
The Outer Space Treaty provides a basic framework for international space law. It covers the legal use of outer space by nation states. The treaty states that outer space is free for all nation states to explore and is not subject to claims of national sovereignty. It also prohibits the deployment of nuclear weapons in outer space. The treaty was passed by the United Nations General Assembly in 1963 and signed in 1967 by the USSR, the United States of America and the United Kingdom. As of mid-year, 2013 the treaty has been ratified by 102 states and signed by an additional 27 states.
Beginning in 1958, outer space has been the subject of multiple resolutions by the United Nations General Assembly. Of these, more than 50 have concerned the international co-operation in the peaceful uses of outer space and preventing an arms race in space. Four additional space law treaties have been negotiated and drafted by the UN's Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space. Still, there remain no legal prohibitions against deploying conventional weapons in space and anti-satellite weapons have been successfully tested by the US, USSR and China. The 1979 Moon Treaty turned the jurisdiction of all heavenly bodies (including the orbits around such bodies) over to the international community. However, this treaty has not been ratified by any nation that currently practices crewed spaceflight.
In 1976 eight equatorial states (
The International Space Station
The
According to the original Memorandum of Understanding between NASA and the RSA, the International Space Station was intended to be a laboratory, observatory and factory in space. It was also planned to provide transportation, maintenance, and act as a staging base for possible future missions to the Moon, Mars and asteroids. In the 2010 United States National Space Policy, it was given additional roles of serving commercial, diplomatic[38] and educational purposes.[39]
Internet
As a global system of
The resultant
See also
- Environmental economics
- Environmental law
- Free and open-source software
- Goods
- Global public goods
- Human ecology
- Tragedy of the commons
- Wikipedia
References
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- ISBN 0-582-40487-8.
- ISBN 0-521-40599-8.
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- OCLC 60041593.
- ^ DEFRA Database of registered common land in England Archived 2014-11-29 at the Wayback Machine
- ISBN 978-1849809405.
- ^ "" Chapter 18, The global commons." World Conservation Strategy, International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, accessed 22 May 2009" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 21 July 2011. Retrieved 22 May 2009.
- ^ "Raymond, Mark (2012). "The Internet as a Global Commons?" Governing the Internet: Chaos, Control or Consensus? The Centre for International Governance Innovation (CIGI)". Archived from the original on 2013-04-26. Retrieved 2013-06-30.
- ISBN 978-90-411-0505-9
- ISBN 978-0199656202.
- .
- PMID 5699198. Also available here [1] Archived 2010-02-28 at the Wayback Machine and here. Archived 2012-01-24 at the Wayback Machine
- hdl:10535/7545. Archivedfrom the original on 2014-03-16. Retrieved 2013-07-01.
- PMID 19179281.
- ^ Kanie, Norichike (2007). "Governance with Multi-lateral Environmental Agreements: A healthy or ill-equipped fragmentation?" Global Environmental Governance: Perspectives on the Current Debate, Walter Hoffmann and Lydia Swart (eds.): 67-86. New York: Center for UN Reform Education.
- ^ Haas, Keohane and Levy (1993). Institutions for the Earth: Sources of effective international environmental protection. Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
- ^ Zürn, Michael (1998). "The Rise of International Environmental Politics: A Review of Current Research." World Politics, 50(4):617-649.
- ^ Urbina, Ian (July 31, 2015). "Protecting the Untamed Seas". The New York Times. Retrieved Jan 14, 2021.
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{{cite journal}}
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- ^ "Global Ocean Legacy". Environmental Initiative, Pew Charitable Trusts. Archived from the original on 18 July 2013. Retrieved 1 July 2013.
- ^ [ozone.unep.org "UN Environment Programme - Ozone"]. Retrieved 5 December 2019.
{{cite web}}
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value (help) - ^ Keneth L. Denman; Guy Brasseur; et al. (2007). "Couplings between changes in Climate System and the Biogeochemistry, 7.5.3" (PDF). IPCC. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2011-03-15. Retrieved 2008-04-09.
- ^ "Article 2". The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. Archived from the original on 28 October 2005. Retrieved 5 December 2019.
Such a level should be achieved within a time-frame sufficient to allow ecosystems to adapt naturally to climate change, to ensure that food production is not threatened and to enable economic development to proceed in a sustainable manner.
- ^ "Chronological lists of ratifications of, accessions and successions to the Convention and the related Agreements". United Nations Division for Ocean Affairs and the Law of the Sea. April 22, 2009. Archived from the original on 14 April 2009. Retrieved April 30, 2009.
- ^ "Information about the Antarctic Treaty and how Antarctica is governed". Polar Conservation Organisation. December 28, 2005. Archived from the original on March 8, 2011. Retrieved February 6, 2011.
- S2CID 82541620.
- ISBN 978-0-521-80767-8. Archived from the originalon 2019-12-15. Retrieved 2019-12-18.
- S2CID 10453943. Archived from the original on 2012-09-07. Retrieved 2012-08-08.)
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link - doi:10.1038/ngeo1717.
- ISBN 978-0-8138-1024-9.
- ^ S2CID 248300127.
- ^ "Orbital space around Earth must be protected amid rise in satellites, say scientists". The Guardian. 22 April 2022. Retrieved 13 May 2022.
- ISBN 978-0387781440.
- ^ "How Much the International Space Station (ISS) Cost to Build". whatitcosts.com. 14 April 2016. Archived from the original on 16 June 2012. Retrieved 3 July 2013.
- ^ Payette, Julie (10 December 2012). "Research and Diplomacy 350 Kilometers above the Earth: Lessons from the International Space Station". Science & Diplomacy. 1 (4). Archived from the original on 12 October 2013. Retrieved 3 July 2013.
- National Archives.
- ISBN 978-0415147248.
External links
- The Global Environmental Facility
- Share the World's Resources Sustainable Economics to End Global Poverty – the Global Commons in Economic Practice.
Further reading
- Goldman, Michael (1998). Privatizing Nature: Political Struggles for the Global Commons. Rutgers University Press. ISBN 978-0813525549.
- Amstutz, Mark R. (2008). International Ethics: Concepts, Theories, and Cases in Global Politics. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-0742556041.
- Harrison, Kathryn; Lisa McIntosh Sundstrom (2010). Global Commons, Domestic Decisions: The Comparative Politics of Climate Change. MIT Press. ISBN 978-0262514316.
- Milun, Kathryn (2010). The Political Uncommons: The Cross-cultural Logic of the Global Commons. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. ISBN 978-0754671398.
- Jasper, Scott (2012). Conflict and Cooperation in the Global Commons: A Comprehensive Approach for International Security. Georgetown University Press. ISBN 978-1589019232.