Global health
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Public health |
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Global health is the
Global health is not to be confused with international health, which is defined as the branch of public health focusing on developing nations and foreign aid efforts by industrialized countries.[6]
One way that global health can be measured is through the prevalence of various global diseases in the world and their threat to decrease life expectancy in the present day. Estimates suggest that in a pre-modern, poor world, life expectancy was around 30 years in all regions of the world (mainly due to high infant mortality).[7] Another holistic perspective called One Health can be used to address global health challenges and to improve global health security.[8][9][10]
The predominant agency associated with global health (and international health) is the World Health Organization (WHO). Other important agencies impacting global health include UNICEF and World Food Programme (WFP). The United Nations system has also played a part in cross-sectoral actions to address global health and its underlying socioeconomic determinants with the declaration of the Millennium Development Goals[11] and the more recent Sustainable Development Goals.
Definition
Global health employs several perspectives that focus on the determinants and distribution of health in international contexts.
- treatment.[12]
- Public health emphasizes the health of populations.[13]
- Epidemiology helps identify risk factors and causes of health problems.[14]
- Demography provides data for policy decisions.[15]<
- Economics emphasizes the cost-effectiveness and cost-benefit approaches for the optimal allocation of health resources.[16]
- Other social sciences such as sociology, development studies, psychology, anthropology, cultural studies, and law can help understand the determinants of health in societies.
Both individuals and organizations working in the domain of global health often face many questions regarding ethical and human rights. Critical examination of the various causes and justifications of health inequities is necessary for the success of proposed solutions. Such issues are discussed at the bi-annual Global Summits of National Ethics/Bioethics Councils.[17]
History
Global health as a discipline is widely acknwoledged to be of imperial origin and the need for its decolonisation has been widely recognised.[18][19][20] The global health ecosystem has also been criticised as having a feudal structure, acting for a small group of institutions and individuals based in high-income countries which acts similar to an imperial "Crown".[21] Some key leaders of the decolonising global health movement are Seye Abimbola and Madhukar Pai.
Important steps were taken towards global co-operation in health with the formation of the
At a United Nations Summit in 2000, member nations declared eight
Several major initiatives began in the 2000s, including the vaccine alliance GAVI in 2000, The Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria in 2002, U.S. President's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief in 2003, and the U.S. President's Malaria Initiative in 2005. In this decade and as part of the Monterrey Consensus (which didn't pursue goals as aggressively as many activists had urged),[28] an increasing emphasis was put on measuring improvement in health outcomes, rather than merely the amount of money spent.[29]
In 2015 a book titled "To Save Humanity" was published, with nearly 100 essays regarding today's most pressing global health issues.[30] The essays were authored by global figures in politics, science, and advocacy ranging from Bill Clinton to Peter Piot, and addressed a wide range of issues including vaccinations, antimicrobial resistance, health coverage, tobacco use, research methodology, climate change, equity, access to medicine, and media coverage of health research.
Measures
Measures of global health include disability-adjusted life year (DALY), quality-adjusted life years (QALYs), and mortality rate.[31]
Disability-adjusted life years
The DALY is a summary measure that combines the impact of
Quality-adjusted life years
QALYs combine expected survival with expected quality of life into a single number: if an additional year of healthy life is worth a value of one (year), then a year of less healthy life is worth less than one (year). QALY calculations are based on measurements of the value that individuals place on expected years of survival. Measurements can be made in several ways: by techniques that replicate gambles about preferences for alternative states of health, with surveys or analyses that infer willingness to pay for alternative states of health, or through instruments that are based on trading off some or all likely survival time that a medical intervention might provide in order to gain less survival time of higher quality.[31]
Infant and child mortality
Infant mortality and child mortality for children under age 5 are more specific than DALYs or QALYs in representing the health in the poorest sections of a population, and are thus especially useful when focusing on health equity.[32] added section
Morbidity
Morbidity measures include
Health topics
Infectious diseases
Respiratory tract infections
Infections of the respiratory tract and middle ear are major causes of morbidity and mortality worldwide.
Diarrheal illnesses
Diarrhea is the second most common cause of child mortality worldwide, responsible for 17% of deaths of children under age 5.[35] Poor sanitation can increase transmission of bacteria and viruses through water, food, utensils, hands, and flies. Dehydration due to diarrhea can be effectively treated through oral rehydration therapy with dramatic reductions in mortality.[36][37] Important nutritional measures include the promotion of breastfeeding and zinc supplementation. While hygienic measures alone may be insufficient for the prevention of rotavirus diarrhea,[38] it can be prevented by a safe and potentially cost-effective vaccine.[39]
HIV/AIDS
The HIV/AIDS epidemic has highlighted the global nature of human health and welfare and globalization has given rise to a trend toward finding common solutions to global health challenges. Numerous international funds have been set up in recent times to address global health challenges such as HIV.[40] Since the beginning of the epidemic, more than 70 million people have been infected with the HIV virus and about 35 million people have died of HIV. Globally, 36.9 million [31.1–43.9 million] people were living with HIV at the end of 2017. An estimated 0.8% [0.6–0.9%] of adults aged 15–49 years worldwide are living with HIV, although the burden of the epidemic continues to vary considerably between countries and regions. The WHO African region remains most severely affected, with nearly 1 in every 25 adults (4.1%) living with HIV and accounting for nearly two-thirds of the people living with HIV worldwide.[41] Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is transmitted through unprotected sex, unclean needles, blood transfusions, and from mother to child during birth or lactation. Globally, HIV is primarily spread through sexual intercourse. The risk-per-exposure with vaginal sex in low-income countries from female to male is 0.38% and male to female is 0.3%.[42] The infection damages the immune system, leading to acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) and eventually, death. Antiretroviral drugs prolong life and delay the onset of AIDS by minimizing the amount of HIV in the body.
Malaria
Malaria is a mosquito-borne infectious disease caused by the parasites of the genus
Bacterial pathogens
A GBD study reported global estimates of death rates from (33) bacterial pathogens, finding such infections are contributing to one in 8 deaths (or ~7.7 million deaths), which could make it the second largest cause of death globally in 2019.[47]
Neglected tropical diseases
More than one billion people were treated for at least one neglected tropical disease in 2015.
Pandemic prevention and preparedness
Pandemics have an impact on global health.
Pandemic prevention is the organization and management of preventive measures against pandemics. Those include measures to reduce causes of new infectious diseases and measures to prevent outbreaks and epidemics from becoming pandemics.
It is not to be mistaken for pandemic preparedness or mitigation (e.g. against COVID-19) which largely seek to mitigate the magnitude of negative effects of pandemics, although the topics may overlap with pandemic prevention in some respects.
Some biosafety and public health researchers contend that certain pandemic prevention efforts themselves carry risk of triggering pandemics (e.g. wildlife virus sampling), though not engaging in any form of sampling also carries the risk of being unprepared for future spillover events and being unaware of future pandemic pathogens.Prevention of future pandemics requires steps to identify future causes of pandemics and to take preventive measures before the disease moves uncontrollably into the human population.
For example, influenza is a rapidly evolving disease which has caused pandemics in the past and has potential to cause future pandemics. WHO collates the findings of 144 national influenza centres worldwide which monitor emerging flu viruses. Virus variants which are assessed as likely to represent a significant risk are identified and can then be incorporated into the next seasonal influenza vaccine program.[55]
In a press conference on 28 December 2020, Mike Ryan, head of the WHO Emergencies Program, and other officials said the current COVID-19 pandemic is "not necessarily the big one" and "the next pandemic may be more severe." They called for preparation.[56] WHO and the UN have warned the world must tackle the cause of pandemics and not just the health and economic symptoms.[57]Health research and development
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (December 2022) |
The global health approach could foster international collaboration in medical research and development and share of its results such as vaccines, optimizing overall global health for citizens. The
Maternal health
Nutrition
In 2010, about 104 million children were underweight, and undernutrition contributes to about one third of child deaths around the world.[66] (Undernutrition is not to be confused with malnutrition, which refers to poor proportion of food intake and can thus refer to obesity.)[67] Undernutrition impairs the immune system, increasing the frequency, severity, and duration of infections (including measles, pneumonia, and diarrhea). Infection can further contribute to malnutrition.[68]
Deficiencies of micronutrients, such as vitamin A, iron, iodine, and zinc, are common worldwide and can compromise intellectual potential, growth, development, and adult productivity.[69][70][71][72][73][74][75] Interventions to prevent malnutrition include micronutrient supplementation, fortification of basic grocery foods, dietary diversification, hygienic measures to reduce spread of infections, and the promotion of breastfeeding.
Non-communicable diseases
Approximately 80% of deaths linked to
In September 2011, the United Nations is hosting its first General Assembly Special Summit on the issue of non-communicable diseases.[80] Noting that non-communicable diseases are the cause of some 35 million deaths each year, the international community is being increasingly called to take measures for the prevention and control of chronic diseases and mitigate their impacts on the world population, especially on women, who are usually the primary caregivers.
For example, the rate of
Considering that 360 million people across the world live with disabling hearing loss, including 32 million children and nearly 180 million older adults, and that chronic ear diseases, such as chronic suppurative otitis media, can lead to hearing loss and may cause life-threatening complications, the seventieth World Health Assembly on May 31, 2017 signed the resolution WHA70.13 (Agenda item 15.8) urging member states to integrate strategies for ear and hearing care within the framework of their primary health care systems, under the umbrella of universal health coverage.[1] A World Report on Hearing (WRH) was published in response to the resolution (WHA70.13), to provide guidance for Member States to integrate ear and hearing care into their national health plans.[82]
Lifestyle diseases
Concerns were raised in 2011 that lifestyle disease could soon have an impact on the workforce and the cost of health care. Treating these non-communicable diseases can be expensive.[85] It can be critical for the patients health to receive primary prevention and identify early symptoms of these non-communicable diseases. These lifestyle diseases are expected to increase throughout the years if people do not improve their lifestyle choices.[86]
Some commenters maintain a distinction between diseases ofCommercial determinants of health refers to private sector activities that affect people's health positively or negatively such as advertisements for unhealthy food.[89]
This article needs to be updated.(September 2017) |
The following is a list of the causes of human deaths worldwide for different years arranged by their associated mortality rates. In 2002, there were about 57 million deaths. In 2005, according to the World Health Organization (WHO) using the International Classification of Diseases (ICD), about 58 million people died.[90] In 2010, according to the Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation, 52.8 million people died.[91] In 2016, the WHO recorded 56.7 million deaths[92] with the leading cause of death as cardiovascular disease causing more than 17 million deaths (about 31% of the total) as shown in the chart to the side.
Some causes listed include deaths also included in more specific subordinate causes, and some causes are omitted, so the percentages may only sum approximately to 100%. The causes listed are relatively immediate medical causes, but the ultimate cause of death might be described differently. For example,
Top causes of death, according to the World Health Organization report for the calendar year 2001:[94]
Causes of death in developing countries |
Number of deaths | Causes of death in developed countries |
Number of deaths |
---|---|---|---|
HIV-AIDS |
2,678,000 | Ischaemic heart disease |
3,512,000 |
Lower respiratory infections |
2,643,000 | Cerebrovascular disease | 3,346,000 |
Ischaemic heart disease |
2,484,000 | Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease | 1,829,000 |
Diarrhea | 1,793,000 | Lower respiratory infections |
1,180,000 |
Cerebrovascular disease | 1,381,000 | Lung cancer | 938,000 |
Childhood diseases |
1,217,000 | Car crash |
669,000 |
Malaria | 1,103,000 | Stomach cancer | 657,000 |
Tuberculosis | 1,021,000 | Hypertensive heart disease | 635,000 |
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease | 748,000 | Tuberculosis | 571,000 |
Measles | 674,000 | Suicide | 499,000 |
This section needs to be updated.(December 2022) |
Violence against women
Violence against women has been defined as: "physical, sexual and psychological violence occurring in the family and in the general community, including battering, sexual abuse, dowry-related violence, rape, female genital mutilation and other traditional practices harmful to women, non-spousal violence and violence related to exploitation, sexual harassment and intimidation at work, in educational institutions and elsewhere, trafficking in women, forced prostitution and violence perpetrated or condoned by the state."[95] In addition to causing injury, violence may increase "women's long-term risk of a number of other health problems, including chronic pain, physical disability, drug and alcohol abuse, and depression".[96] The WHO Report on global and regional estimates on violence against women found that partner abuse causes women to have 16% more chances of suffering miscarriages, 41% more occurrences of pre-term birth babies and twice the likeliness of having abortions and acquiring HIV or other STDs[97]
Although statistics can be difficult to obtain as many cases go unreported, it is estimated that one in every five women faces some form of violence during her lifetime, in some cases leading to serious injury or even death.
Activities promoting relationship and communication skills among couples, reducing alcohol access and altering societal ideologies should be organized. Childhood interventions, community and school-based education, raising media-oriented awareness and other approaches should be carried out to challenge social norms and stereotypical thought processes to promote behavioral change among men and raise gender equality. Trained health care providers would play a vital role in secondary and tertiary prevention of abuse by performing early identification of women suffering from violence and contributing to the addressing of their health and psychological needs. They could be highly important in prevention of the recurrence of violence and the mitigation of its effects on the health of the abused women and their children.[100] The Member States of the World Health Assembly endorsed a plan in 2016 for reinforcing the health system's role in addressing the global phenomenon of violence against women and girls and working towards their health and protection.[101]
Global surgery
Halfdan T. Mahler, the 3rd Director-General of the World Health Organization (WHO), first brought attention to the disparities in surgery and surgical care when he stated, "‘the vast majority of the world’s population has no access whatsoever to skilled surgical care and little is being done to find a solution,".[102]
While significant progresses have been made in fields within global health such as
In 2015, the Lancet Commission on Global Surgery (LCoGS) published the landmark report titled "Global Surgery 2030: evidence and solutions for achieving health, welfare, and economic development," describing the large, pre-existing burden of surgical diseases in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) and future directions for increasing universal access to safe surgery by the year 2030.
Core Indicators | Definition | Target |
---|---|---|
Access to timely essential surgery | The proportion of the population that can access, within 2 hours, a facility that can do cesarean delivery, laparotomy, and treatment of open fracture (the Bellwether Procedures) | A minimum of 80% coverage of essential surgical and anesthesia services per country by 2030 |
Specialist surgical workforce density | The number of specialist surgical, anaesthetic, and obstetric physicians who are working, per 100,000 population | 100% of countries with at least 20 surgical, anaesthetic, and obstetric physicians per 100, 000 population by 2030 |
Surgical volume | The number of procedures done in an operating theatre, per 100,000 population per year | 80% of countries by 2020 and 100% of countries by 2030 tracking surgical volume; a minimum of 5000 procedures per 100,000 population by 2030 |
Perioperative mortality | All-cause death rate before discharge in patients who have undergone a procedure in an operating theatre, divided by the total number of procedures, presented as a percentage | 80% of countries by 2020 and 100% of countries by 2030 tracking perioperative mortality; in 2020, assess global data and set national targets for 2030 |
Protection against impoverishing expenditure | The proportion of households protected against impoverishment from direct out-of-pocket payments for surgical and anesthesia care | 100% protection against impoverishment from out-of-pocket payments for surgical and anaesthesia care by 2030 |
Protection against catastrophic expenditure | The proportion of households protected against catastrophic expenditure from direct out-of-pocket payments for surgical and anesthesia care | 100% protection against catastrophic expenditure from out-of-pocket payments for surgical and anaesthesia care by 2030 |
Meeting these goals by the year 2030 would require increases in
as well as pre- and post-surgical care capacities.Data from WHO and the World Bank indicate that scaling up infrastructure to enable access to surgical care in regions where it is currently limited or is non-existent is a low-cost measure relative to the significant morbidity and mortality caused by lack of surgical treatment.
In terms of the financial impact on the patients, the lack of adequate surgical and anesthesia care has resulted in 33 million individuals every year facing catastrophic health expenditure – the out-of-pocket healthcare cost exceeding 40% of a given household's income.[103][112]
In alignment with the LCoGS call for action, the World Health Assembly adopted the resolution WHA68.15 in 2015 that stated, "Strengthening emergency and essential surgical care and anesthesia as a component of universal health coverage."[113] This not only mandated the WHO to prioritize strengthening the surgical and anesthesia care globally, but also led to governments of the member states recognizing the urgent need for increasing capacity in surgery and anesthesia. Additionally, the third edition of Disease Control Priorities (DCP3), published in 2015 by the World Bank, declared surgery as essential and featured an entire volume dedicated to building surgical capacity.[114]
A key policy framework that arose from this renewed global commitment towards surgical care worldwide is the National Surgical Obstetric and Anesthesia Plan (NSOAP).[115] NSOAP focuses on policy-to-action capacity building for surgical care with tangible steps as follows: (1) analysis of baseline indicators, (2) partnership with local champions, (3) broad stakeholder engagement, (4) consensus building and synthesis of ideas, (5) language refinement, (6) costing, (7) dissemination, and (8) implementation. This approach has been widely adopted and has served as guiding principles between international collaborators and local institutions and governments. Successful implementations have allowed for sustainability in terms of longterm monitoring, quality improvement, and continued political and financial support.[115]
The NIHR Global Health Research Unit on Global Surgery
Seven surgical research Hubs in Benin, Ghana, India, Mexico, Nigeria, Rwanda and South Africa with an extensive network of urban and rural ‘Spoke’ hospitals have joined to create the NIHR.[116] The NIHR Global Health Research Unit on Global Surgery is led by the University of Birmingham[117] which provides overall oversight in relation to the Unit strategy, infrastructure and delivery, research and finance.
The network prioritized surgical topics that needed research and has performed multiple surgical studies. The network resulted in many research groups including GlobalSurg I, II, III[118] and COVIDSurg[119] and many other trials with worldwide collaborations as project FALCON[120] and CHEETAH.[121]
The research was published in over 40 articles in high impact journals in topics like Surgical site infections,[122] COVID-19[123] and mortality.[124]
Other Global Surgery Collaborations
More trials have emerged to assess surgical outcomes around the World using big data from thousands of centers. Other notable trials include:
- Global PaedSurg; The study was published in The Lancet examined the risk of mortality for nearly 4000 babies born with birth defects in 264 hospitals around the world. The study found babies born with birth defects involving the intestinal tract have a two in five chance of dying in a low-income country compared to one in five in a middle-income country and one in twenty in a high-income country.[125][126]
- APORG: The African Perioperative Research Group (APORG) was launched in South Africa
- ASOS and ASOS-2; The studies showed that death after surgery is a major public health problem in Africa. Surgical patients in Africa are twice as likely to die in hospital following surgery when compared to the global average.[127][128]
- ACCCOS
- Global Health Research Group on Children’s Non-Communicable Diseases Collaborative
Many scholars from around the world have participated in overlapping trials whether as Principal Investigators, Dissemination Committee or Regional leaders to promote the research and oversee data collection. Notable collaborators from these networks include The list included key figures from around the World as Prof Bruce Biccard (South Africa), Prof Adesoji Ademuyiwa (Nigeria), Prof Kokila Lakhoo (Oxford, UK), Dr Naomi Wright (Oxford, UK), Dr Emrah Aydin (Turkey), Prof Mahmoud Elfiky (Egypt) and Prof Milind Chitnis (South Africa).[129]
Infertility crisis
A
Health interventions
Global interventions for improved
Many populations face an "outcome gap", which refers to the gap between members of a population who have access to medical treatment versus those who do not. Countries facing outcome gaps lack sustainable infrastructure.[141] In Guatemala, a subset of the public sector, the Programa de Accessibilidad a los Medicamentos ("Program for Access to Medicines"), had the lowest average availability (25%) compared to the private sector (35%). In the private sector, the highest- and lowest-priced medicines were 22.7 and 10.7 times more expensive than international reference prices respectively. Treatments were generally unaffordable, costing as much as 15 days wages for a course of the antibiotic ceftriaxone.[142] The public sector in Pakistan, while having access to medicines at a lower price than international reference prices, has a chronic shortage of and lack of access to basic medicines.[143]
Journalist Laurie Garrett argues that the field of global health is not plagued by a lack of funds, but that more funds do not always translate into positive outcomes. The problem lies in the way these funds are allocated, as they are often disproportionately allocated to alleviating a single disease.[144]
- Labor shortages
In its 2006
Global health security
The COVID-19 pandemic has highlighted how global health security is reliant on all countries around the world, including low- and middle-income countries, having strong health systems and at least a minimum of health research capacities. In an article 2020 in Annals of Global Health,[147] the ESSENCE group outlined a mechanism for review of investment in health research capacity building in low- and middle-income countries. The review mechanism will give funders of research for health the information to identify the gaps in the capacity that exist in low- and middle-income countries and the opportunity to work together to address those disparities. The overall goal is increased, coordinated support of research on national health priorities as well as improved pandemic preparedness in LMICs, and, eventually, fewer countries with very limited health research capacity.
Global factors impacting health
Climate change
The
In addition to direct impacts, climate change and extreme weather events cause changes in the
Changes in climate can cause decreasing yields for some crops and regions, resulting in higher food prices, food insecurity, and undernutrition. Climate change can also reduce water security. These factors together can lead to increasing poverty, human migration, violent conflict, and mental health issues.[154][155][150]
Climate change affects human health at all ages, from infancy through adolescence, adulthood and old age.
The health effects of climate change are increasingly a matter of concern for the international public health policy community. In 2009, a publication in the general medical journal The Lancet stated that "Climate change is the biggest global health threat of the 21st century".[156] The World Health Organization reiterated this in 2015.[157]
Research shows that health professionals around the world agree that climate change is real, is caused by humans, and is causing increased health problems in their communities. Studies also show that taking action to address climate change improves public health. Health professionals can act by informing people about health harms and ways to address them, by lobbying leaders to take action, and by taking steps to decarbonize their own homes and workplaces.[158]
Studies have found that communications on climate change that present it as a health concern rather than just an environmental matter are more likely to engage the public.[159][160]A comprehensive annually scheduled study finds climate change is "undermining every dimension of global health monitored" and reports dire conclusions from tracking of impact indicators.[161][162] The effects of climate change have also increased the risk of health conditions, such as lung disease or asthma which are caused by air pollution.[163] These medical conditions are caused due to extreme heatwaves or by "higher concentrations of ground-level ozone".[163]
Antimicrobial resistance
Antibiotic resistance is a major subset of AMR, that applies specifically to
Clinical conditions due to infections caused by microbes containing AMR cause millions of deaths each year.[172] In 2019 there were around 1.27 million deaths globally caused by bacterial AMR.[173] Infections caused by resistant microbes are more difficult to treat, requiring higher doses of antimicrobial drugs, more expensive antibiotics, or alternative medications which may prove more toxic. These approaches may also cost more.[167][168]
The prevention of
Rising drug resistance is caused mainly by use of antimicrobials in humans and other animals, and spread of resistant strains between the two.
Antimicrobial resistance is increasing globally due to increased prescription and dispensing of antibiotic drugs in
AMR has been described as a leading global health issue. Globally, 1.27 million deaths in 2019 were attributable to AMR. That year, AMR may have contributed to 5 million deaths and one in five people who died due to AMR were children under five years old.[195]
Organization
Governmental or inter-governmental organizations focused on global health include:
- The United Nations
- World Health Organization
- United Nations Children's Fund(UNICEF)
- World Food Programme (WFP)
- Pan American Health Organization (PAHO)
- International Committee of the Red Cross
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)
- The Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria
Non-governmental organizations focused on global health include:
- Médecins Sans Frontières (Doctors Without Borders, MSF)
- Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation
Governments and analysis
A study of select global health related organizations and initiatives suggests that major trends in global health governance appear to be "towards more discretionary funding and away from core or longer-term funding; towards defined multi-stakeholder governance and away from traditional government-centred representation and decision-making; and towards narrower mandates or problem-focused vertical initiatives and away from broader systemic goals".[196] There is a growing willingness to use militaries in state-led support of global health efforts which have capabilities ranging from "research, surveillance, and medical expertise to rapidly deployable, large-scale assets for logistics, transportation, and security".[197]
Global Health Security Agenda
The Global Health Security Agenda (GHSA) is "a multilateral, multi-sector effort that includes 60 participating countries and numerous private and public international organizations focused on building up worldwide health security capabilities toward meeting such threats" as the spread of infectious disease. On March 26–28, 2018, the GHSA held a high-level meeting in Tbilisi, Georgia, on biosurveillance of infectious disease threats, "which include such modern-day examples as HIV/AIDS,
GHSA works through four main mechanisms of member action, action packages, task forces and international cooperation. In 2015, the Steering Group of the GHSA agreed upon the implementation of their commitments through 11 Action Packages. Action Packages are a commitment by member countries and their partners to work collaboratively towards development and implementation of International Health Regulations (IHR).[200] Action packages are based on GHSA's aim to strengthen national and international capacity to prevent, detect, and respond to infectious disease threats. Each action package consists of five-year targets, measures of progress, desired impacts, country commitments, and list of baseline assessments.[201] The Joint External Evaluation process, derived as part of the IHR Monitoring and Evaluation Framework is an assessment of a country's capacity for responding to public health threats.[200] So far, G7 partners and EU have made a collective commitment to assist 76 countries whereas the US committed to helping 32 countries to achieve GHSA targets for IHR implementation. In September 2014, a pilot tool was developed to measure progress of the Action Packages and applied in countries (Georgia, Peru, Uganda, Portugal, the United Kingdom, and Ukraine) that volunteered to participate in an external assessment.[202]
See also
- Priority-setting in global health
- Health system
- Health economics
- Public health
- Social determinants of health
- Universal health care
- Migrant health
- Child health and nutrition in Africa
- Global Strategy for Women's and Children's Health
- CAB Direct – Global Health database
- Global neurosurgery
Notes
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Further reading
- Jacobsen K (2008). Introduction to Global Health. Jones & Bartlett Learning. ISBN 978-0-7637-5159-3.
- Levine R (2007). Case Studies in Global Health: Millions Saved. Jones & Bartlett Publishers. ISBN 978-0-7637-4620-9.
- Palmer SP (2010). Launching Global Health: The Caribbean Odyssey of the Rockefeller Foundation. University of Michigan Press. ISBN 978-0-472-07089-3.
- Singer M, Erickson PI (2013). Global Health: An Anthropological Perspective. Waveland Press. ISBN 978-1-4786-1028-1.
- Skolnik R (2008). Essentials of Global Health. Jones & Bartlett Learning. ISBN 978-0-7637-3421-3.
- Skolnik R (2011). Global Health 101. Jones & Bartlett Publishers. ISBN 978-0-7637-9752-2.
- Spiegel JM, Huish R (2009). "Canadian foreign aid for global health: Human security opportunity lost". Canadian Foreign Policy Journal. 15 (3): 60–84. S2CID 154963843.
- Taylor AL, Hwenda L, Larsen BI, Daulaire N (December 2011). "Stemming the brain drain--a WHO global code of practice on international recruitment of health personnel". The New England Journal of Medicine. 365 (25): 2348–2351. PMID 22187983.
- White F, Stallones L, Last JM (2013). Global Public Health: Ecological Foundations. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-975190-7.
External links
- GlobalHealth.gov (hosted by U.S. Department of Health & Human Services)
- Partnership for Maternal, Newborn and Child Health
- Roll Back Malaria – global partnership against malaria
- Stop TB – global partnership against tuberculosis